Global water education: STEM – Water resource term dictionary and water infographic resource directory – teacher reference guide.

Water Resource Terms

Water Resource Term A

abandoned water right: a water right which was not put to beneficial use for a number of years, generally five to seven years.

abandoned well: a well which is no longer used. In many places, abandoned wells must be filled with cement or concrete grout to prevent pollution of ground water bodies.

absorption: the uptake of water, other fluids, or dissolved chemicals by a cell or an organism (as tree roots absorb dissolved nutrients in soil).

accretion: a gradual increase in land area adjacent to a river.

acid rain: the acidic rainfall which results when rain combines with sulfur oxides emissions from combustion of fossil fuels.

acidic: the condition of water or soil that contains a sufficient amount of acid substances to lower the pH below 7.0.

acre-foot: the amount of water required to cover one acre to a depth of one foot. An acre-foot equals 325,851 gallons, or 43,560 cubic feet. A flow of 1 cubic feet per second produces 1.98 acre-feet per day.

activated carbon adsorption: the process of pollutants moving out of water and attaching on to activated carbon.

adhesion: the molecular attraction asserted between the surfaces of bodies in contact. Compare cohesion.

adjudication: a court proceeding to determine all rights to the use of water on a particular stream system or ground water basin.

abandoned well: a well which is no longer used. In many places, abandoned wells must be filled with cement or concrete grout to prevent pollution of ground water bodies.

administrative order: a legal document signed by U.S. EPA directing an individual, business, or other entity to take corrective action or refrain from an activity. It describes the violations and actions to be taken, and can be enforced in court. Such orders may be issued, for example, as a result of an administrative complaint ordering the respondent to pay a penalty for violations of the Clean Water Act.

administrative order on consent: a legal agreement signed by U.S. EPA and an individual, business, or other entity through which the violator agrees to pay for correction of Clean Water Act violations, take the required corrective or cleanup actions, or refrain from an activity. It describes the actions to be taken, may be subject to a comment period, applies to civil actions, and can be enforced in court.

adsorption: the adhesion of a substance to the surface of a solid or liquid. Adsorption is often used to extract pollutants by causing them to be attached to such adsorbents as activated carbon or silica gel. Hydrophobic, or water-repulsing adsorbents, are used to extract oil from waterways in oil spills.

advanced wastewater treatment: any treatment of sewage that goes beyond the secondary or biological water treatment stage and includes the removal of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen and a high percentage of suspended solids.

aerated lagoon: a holding and/or treatment pond that speeds up the natural process of biological decomposition of organic waste by stimulating the growth and activity of bacteria that degrade organic waste.

aeration: the mixing or turbulent exposure of water to air and oxygen to dissipate volatile contaminants and other pollutants into the air.

aeration tank: a chamber used to inject air into water.

aerobic treatment: process by which microbes decompose complex organic compounds in the presence of oxygen and use the liberated energy for reproduction and growth. Such processes include extended aeration, trickling filtration, and rotating biological contactors.

aerobic: life or processes that require, or are not destroyed by, the presence of oxygen.

aggradation: a progressive build up of a channel bed with sediment over several years due to a normal sequence of scour and deposition, as distinguished from the rise and fall of the channel bed during a single flood.

aggressive water: water which is soft and acidic and can corrode plumbing, piping, and appliances.

algae: simple rootless plants that grow in sunlit waters in proportion to the amount of available nutrients. They can affect water quality adversely by lowering the dissolved oxygen in the water. They are food for fish and small aquatic animals.

algal bloom: a phenomenon whereby excessive nutrients within a river, stream or lake cause an explosion of plant life which results in the depletion of the oxygen in the water needed by fish and other aquatic life. Algae bloom is usually the result of urban runoff (of lawn fertilizers, etc.). The potential tragedy is that of a “fish kill,” where the stream life dies in one mass extinction.

algicide: substance or chemical used specifically to kill or control algae.

alkaline: the condition of water or soil that contains a sufficient amount of alkali substance to raise the pH above 7.0.

alkalinity: the measurement of constituents in a water supply which determine alkaline conditions. The alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to neutralize acids.

allogenic recharge: recharge that occurs in a sinking stream, entering an aquifer through sinkholes or fault planes.

alluvial: relating to, composed of, or found in alluvium.

alluvium: sediments deposited by erosional processes, usually by streams.

alvusion: a sudden or perceptible change in a river’s margin, such as a change in course or loss of banks due to flooding.

ambient background concentration: a representative concentration of the water quality in a receiving water body, determined from monitoring. The statistic or data used to determine the value from the range of data is dependent on the purpose of the monitoring and the application of the data.

ambient medium: material surrounding or contacting an organism (e.g., outdoor air, indoor air, water, or soil through which chemicals or pollutants can reach the organism.

amprometric titration: a way of measuring concentrations of certain substances in water using the electric current that flows during a chemical reaction.

anabranch: a secondary channel of a stream which leaves and then rejoins the main channel. The two channels are separated by stable, vegetated lands.

anaerobic: a life or process that occurs in, or is not destroyed by, the absence of oxygen.

anistropic aquifer: an aquifer in which permeability varies with direction of flow. The Edwards is a highly anistropic aquifer. Modeling flow in such aquifers is very problematic.

annular space: the space between two concentric cylindrical objects, one of which surrounds the other, such as the space between the walls of a drilled hole and a casing.

anti-degradation clause: part of federal and water quality requirements prohibiting deterioration where pollution levels are above the legal limit.

appropriative rights: “first in time, first in right” principle of allocating water rights based. Usually involves a user being allowed to take water from a particular source without regard to the contiguity of the land to the source.

aquatic: growing in, living in, or frequenting water.

aquatic life use: a beneficial use designation in which the water body provides suitable habitat for survival and reproduction of desirable fish, shellfish, and other aquatic organisms.

aquiclude: a formation which, although porous and capable of absorbing water slowly, will not transmit water fast enough to furnish an appreciable supply for a well or a spring.

aqueous: something made up of water.

aqueous solubility: the maximum concentration of a chemical that will dissolve in pure water at a reference temperature.

aquiculture: the raising or fattening of fish in enclosed ponds.

aquifer: a geologic formation that will yield water to a well in sufficient quantities to make the production of water from this formation feasible for beneficial use; permeable layers of underground rock or sand that hold or transmit groundwater below the water table.

aquitard: geological formation that may contain groundwater but is not capable of transmitting significant quantities of it under normal hydraulic gradients. May function as confining bed.

armoring: the formation of an erosion-resistant layer of relatively large particles on a streambed or bank resulting from removal of finer particles by erosion.

artesian aquifer: a geologic formation in which water is under sufficient hydrostatic pressure to rise above the top of the aquifer in the subsurface. Artesian aquifers are confined aquifers.

artesian well: a water well drilled into a confined aquifer where enough hydraulic pressure exists for water rise in the well to a height above the top of the aquifer in the subsurface.

artesian zone: a zone where water is confined in an aquifer under pressure so that the water will rise in the well casing or drilled hole above the bottom of the confining layer overlying the aquifer.

assay: a test for a specific chemical, microbe, or effect.

assemblage: an organism group of interacting species in a given ecosystem, for example, a fish assemblage or a benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage.

assimilation: the ability of a water body to purify itself of pollutants.

assimilative capacity: the capacity of a natural body of water to receive and dilute wastewaters or toxic materials without damage to aquatic life or humans who consume the water.

attenuation: the process whereby the magnitude of a flood event is reduced by slowing, modifying, or diverting the flow of water.

autogenic recharge: recharge that occurs by falling directly on an aquifer’s outcrop at the surface.

average annual recharge: amount of water entering the aquifer on an average annual basis. Averages mean very little for the Edwards because the climate of the region and structure of the aquifer produce a situation in which the area is usually water rich or water poor.

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Water Resource Term B

background level: the concentration of a substance in an environmental media (water or soil) that occurs naturally or is not the result of human activities.

backpressure: a pressure that can cause water to backflow into the water supply when a user’s wastewater system is at a higher pressure than the public system.

backsiphonage: reverse seepage of water in a distribution system.

backwashing: reversing the flow of water through a home treatment device filter or membrane to clean and remove deposits.

bank: the sloping land bordering a stream channel that forms the usual boundaries of a channel. The bank has a steeper slope than the bottom of the channel and is usually steeper than the land surrounding the channel. Right and left banks are named facing downstream.

bank-full capacity: the rate of water flow that completely fills a channel; the flow rate at which the water surface is level with the flood plain.

bank stability: occurs when the channel bank configuration does not change significantly over time.

bar screen: in wastewater treatment, a device used to remove large solids from the incoming wastewater stream.

barrage: any artificial obstruction placed in water to increase water level or divert it. Usually the idea is to control peak flow for later release.

base flows: the component of a flow regime that represents normal flow conditions between precipitation events. Base flows provide a range of suitable habitat conditions that support the natural biological community of a specific river sub-basin.

bathymetric: related to the measurement of water depth within a water body.

bed forms: three-dimensional configurations of bed material, which are formed in streambeds by the action of flowing water.

bed load: the particles in a stream channel that mainly move by bouncing, sliding, or rolling on or near the bottom of the stream.

bed stability: occurs when the average elevation of the streambed does not change significantly over time. Aggradation and degradation are the two forms of bed instability.

beneficial use: the amount of water necessary when reasonable intelligence and diligence are used for a stated purpose; Texas law recognizes the following uses as beneficial: (1) domestic and municipal uses, (2) industrial uses, (3) irrigation, (4) mining, (5) hydroelectric power, (6) navigation, (7) recreation, (8) stock raising, (9) public parks, and (10) game preserves.

benthic: pertaining to the bottom of a body of water, on or within the bottom substrate material.

Best Management Practice (BMP): methods or measures designed and selected to reduce or eliminate the discharge of pollutants from point and nonpoint source discharges. As used in the stormwater context, BMPs are a schedule of activities, prohibitions of practices, maintains procedures and other management practices to prevent or reduce the pollution of waters of the state. BMPs include treatment requirements, operating procedures and practices to control plant site runoff, spills or leaks, sludge or waste disposal, or drainage from raw material storage.

bioaccumulation: uptake and retention of substances by an organism from its surrounding medium (usually water) and from food.

bioassay: a test to determine the relative strength of a substance by comparing its effect on a test organism with that of a standard preparation.

bioassessment: monitoring the aquatic environment to determine the health of a stream.

biodiversity: the variety of plant, animal, and microorganism species present in the ecosystem and the community structures the form.

biogeochemical cycling: the flow of chemical substances to and from the major environmental reservoirs (atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere).

biological integrity: the ability to support and maintain balanced, integrated functionality in the natural habitat of a given region. The concept is applied primarily in drinking water management.

biological oxidation: decomposition of complex organic materials by microorganisms. Occurs in self-purification of water bodies and in activated sludge wastewater treatment.

biomonitoring: a test used to evaluate the relative potency of a chemical by comparing its effect on a living organism with the effect of a standard population on the same type of organism.

bioremediation: a process that uses living organisms to remove pollutants.

biosolids: a nutrient-rich organic material resulting from the treatment of wastewater. Biosolids contain nitrogen and phosphorus along with other supplementary nutrients in smaller doses, such as potassium, sulfur, magnesium, calcium, copper and zinc. Soil that is lacking in these substances can be reclaimed with biosolids use. The application of biosolids to land improves soil properties and plant productivity, and reduces dependence on inorganic fertilizers.

biosphere: the earth and all its ecosystems.

biota: the plant (flora) and animal life (fauna) of a region or ecosystem.

blackwater: wastewater from toilet, latrine, and agua privy flushing and sinks used for food preparation or disposal of chemical or chemical-biological ingredients.

blinds: water samples containing a chemical of known concentration given a fictitious company name and slipped into the sample flow of the lab to test the impartiality of the lab staff.

bloom: a proliferation of algae and/or higher aquatic plants in a body of water; often related to pollution or excessive nutrients, especially when they accelerate growth.

blowdown: the water drawn from boiler systems and cold water basins of cooling towers to prevent the buildup of solids.

bog: a type of wetland that accumulates appreciable peat deposits. They depend primarily on precipitation for their water source, and are usually acidic and rich in plant matter with a conspicuous mat or living green moss.

boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid boils. It is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the pressure on its surface. If the pressure of the liquid varies, the actual boiling point varies. For water it is 212 degrees Fahrenheit or 100 degrees Celsius.

BOD: Biochemical Oxygen Demand. A measure of the amount of oxygen required to neutralize organic wastes. The BOD of a wastewater is a characteristic reflecting treatability or stage of decomposition. Compare COD and CBOD.

boundary conditions: definition or statement of conditions or phenomena at the boundaries of a model; water levels, flows, and concentrations that are specified at the boundaries of the area being modeled.

brackish: mixed fresh and salt water.

breakpoint chlorination: addition of chlorine to the point where all organic matter and ammonia compounds have been destroyed and any additional chlorine becomes a free chlorine residual available for disinfection.

brine: highly salty and heavily mineralized water containing heavy metal and organic contaminants.

buoyancy: the tendency of a body to float or rise when immersed in a fluid; the power of a fluid to exert an upward force on a body placed in it.

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Water Resource Term C

calcium carbonate: CACO3 – a white precipitate that forms in water lines, water heaters and boilers in hard water areas; also known as scale.

calorie: amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius.

calibration: to check, adjust, or determine by comparison that a computer model will produce results that meet or exceed some defined criteria within a specified degree of confidence.

canopy: the overhanging cover formed by branches and foliage.

capillary action: movement of water through very small spaces due to molecular forces called capillary forces.

capillary forces: forces that cause ground water to rise above the surface of the saturated zone into the spaces between soil particles in the unsaturated zone.

capillary zone: soil area above the water table where water can rise up slightly through the cohesive force of capillary action.

carbamates: a class of new-age pesticides that attack the nervous system of organisms.

carbon adsorption: a treatment system that removes contaminants from ground water or surface water by forcing it through tanks containing activated carbon treated to attract the contaminants.

carbonates: the collective term for the natural inorganic chemical compounds related to carbon dioxide that exist in natural waterways.

casing: a tubular structure intended to be watertight installed in the excavated or drilled hole to maintain the well opening and, along with cementing, to confine the ground waters to their zones of origin and prevent the entrance of surface pollutants.

cavern: a large underground opening in rock (usually limestone) which occurred when some of the rock was dissolved by water. In some igneous rocks, caverns can be formed by large gas bubbles.

CBOD: Carbonaceous Biochemical Oxygen Demand. A BOD test in which a nitrification inhibitor is added, so that only the carbonaceous oxygen demanding compounds are measured.

cement grout: a mixture of water and cement in the ratio of not more than 5-6 gallons of water to a 94 pound sack of portland cement which is fluid enough to be pumped through a small diameter pipe.

CERCLA: Comprehensive Environment Response, Compensation and Liability Act. Also known as SUPERFUND. The Act gave EPA the authority to clean up abandoned, leaky hazardous waste sites.

certificate of water right: an official document which serves as court evidence of a perfected water right.

CFU: colony forming units. Concentrations of water quality indicator organisms such as fecal coliform bacteria are measured in cfu/100 ml.

channel: a natural or artificial watercourse that continuously or intermittently contains water, with definite bed and banks that confine all but overbanking streamflows.

channelization: natural or intentional straightening and/or deepening of streams so water moves faster and causes less flooding. Channelization can sometimes exacerbate flooding in other downstream areas.

check dam: a small dam constructed in a gully or other small water course to decrease the streamflow velocity, minimize channel erosion, promote deposition of sediment and to divert water from a channel.

chemical weathering: attack and dissolving of parent rock by exposure to rainwater, surface water, oxygen, and other gases in the atmosphere, and compounds secreted by organisms.

Chezy’s equation: the empirical equation used to estimate the hydraulic conditions of flow within a channel cross section. Alternative to Manning’s equation.

Chezy’s roughness: a coefficient in Chezy’s equation that accounts for energy loss due to the friction between the channel and the water.

chlorination: the adding of chlorine to water or sewage for the purpose of disinfection or other biological or chemical results.

chlorine contact chamber: the part of a wastewater treatment plant where treated water is disinfected by chlorine.

chlorine demand: the difference between the amount of chlorine added to water, sewage, or industrial wastes and the amount of residual chlorine remaining at the end of a specific contact period.

chute spillway: the overall structure which allows water to drop rapidly through an open channel without causing erosion. Usually constructed near the edge of dams.

circulate: to move in a circle, circuit or orbit; to flow without obstruction; to follow a course that returns to the starting point.

cistern: a tank used to collect rainwater runoff from the roof of a house or building.

clarification: the clearing action that occurs during wastewater treatment when solids settle out. Clarification is often aided by centrifugal action or chemically induced coagulation.

clarifier: a tank in which solids settle to the bottom and are subsequently removed as sludge.

Clean Water Act: federal legislation enacted in 1972 to restore and maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the surface waters of the United States. The stated goals of the Act are that all waters be fishable and swimmable.

climatic cycle: the periodic changes climate displays, such as a series of dry years following a series of years with heavy rainfall.

climatic year: a period used in meteorological measurements. The climatic year in the U.S. begins on October 1.

climate: generalized weather at a given place on earth over a fairly long period; a long term average of weather.

cloudburst: a torrential downpour of rain, which by it spottiness and relatively high intensity suggests the bursting and discharge of water from a cloud all at once.

coagulation: in water treatment, the use of chemicals to make suspended solids gather or group together into small flocs.

COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand. A measure of the oxygen equivalent of the organic matter content of a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidation. Differs from the BOD test in that COD uses oxygen derived from chemicals, while BOD uses oxygen derived from air dissolved in water.

cohesion: a molecular attraction by which the particles of a body are united throughout the mass whether like or unlike.

cold vapor: method to test water for the presence of mercury.

coliform bacteria: non-pathogenic microorganisms used in testing water to indicate the presence of pathogenic bacteria.

collector well: a well located near a surface water supply used to lower the water table and thereby induce infiltration of surface water through the bed of the water body to the well.

colloids: finely divided solids which will not settle but which may be removed by coagulation or biochemical action.

combined sewer: a sewer system that carries both sanitary sewage and stormwater runoff. When sewers are constructed this way, wastewater treatment plants have to be sized to deal with stormwater flows and oftentimes some of the water receives little or no treatment.

Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO): the discharge of a mixture of storm water and domestic waste when the flow capacity of a sewer system is exceeded during rainstorms.

community water system: In Texas, a public water system which has a potential to serve at least 15 residential service connections on a year-round basis or serves at least 25 residents on a year-round basis.

completion: sealing off access of undesireable water to the well bore by proper casing and/or cementing procedures.

composite sample, weighted: a sample composed of two or more portions collected at specific times and added together in volumes related to the flow at time of collection.

concentration: amount of a chemical or pollutant in a particular volume or weight of air, water, soil, or other medium.

condensation: the change of state from a gas to a liquid.

conduit: a natural or artificial channel through which fluids may be conveyed.

cone of depression: natural depression in the water table around a well during pumping.

confined aquifer: an aquifer that lies between two rock layers of very low permeability. Most confined aquifers also are artesian aquifers.

confining bed or unit: a body of impermeable or distinctly less permeable material stratigraphically adjacent to one or more aquifers.

confluent growth: in coliform testing, abundant or overflowing bacterial growth which makes accurate measurement difficult or impossible.

conjunctive management: integrated management and use of two or more water resources, such as an aquifer and a surface water body.

connate water: water trapped in the pore spaces of a sedimentary rock at the time it was deposited. It is usually highly mineralized.

connectivity: refers to the movement and exchange of water, nutrients, sediments, organic matter, and organisms within a riverine ecosystem. Connectivity occurs laterally (between the stream and its floodplain), longitudinally (along the stream), vertically (between the stream and groundwater), and temporally.

conservation: to protect from loss and waste. Conservation of water may mean to save or store water for later use.

constituent: an informal term used to describe a detectable element or component or attribute of waste or effluent.>

consolidated formation: naturally occurring geologic formations that have been lithified (turned to stone). The term is sometimes used interchangeably with the term “bedrock.” Commonly, these formations will stand at the edges of a bore hole without caving.

consumptive use: the quantity of water not available for reuse. Evapotranspiration, evaporation, incorporation into plant tissue, and infiltration into groundwater are some of the reasons water may not be available for reuse.

contact recreation: activities involving a significant risk of ingestion of water, such as wading by children, swimming, water skiing, diving and surfing.

contamination: the introduction into water of sewage or other foreign matter that will render the water unfit for its intended use.

control variables: large-scale environmental factors that control patterns found in local geomorphic features. For example, geology, soils, land use, hydrology, channel features, and valley characteristics.

conveyance loss: water loss in pipes, channels, conduits, and ditches by leakage or evaporation.

cooling tower: large tower used to transfer the heat in cooling water from a power or industrial plant to the atmosphere either by direct evaporation or by convection and conduction.

correlative rights: rights that are coequal or that relate to one another, so that any one owner cannot take more than his share.

creek: a small stream of water which serves as the natural drainage course for a drainage basin. The term is relative according to size. Some creeks in a humid region would be called rivers if they occurred in an arid area.

crest: the top of a dam, dike, or spillway, which water must reach before passing over the structure; the summit or highest point of a wave; the highest elevation reached by flood waters flowing in a channel.

critical low flow: low flow conditions below which some standards do not apply. The impacts of permitted discharges are analyzed at critical low-flow.

cross-connection: any actual or potential connection between a drinking water system and an unapproved water supply or other source of contamination.

cross-contamination: a condition created when a drill hole, boring, or improperly constructed well forms a pathway for fluid movement between a saturated zone which contains pollutants and a formerly separated saturated zone containing uncontaminated groundwater. Also, where potable water supplies and sanitary services are interconnected.

cubic foot per second (CFS): the rate of discharge representing a volume of one cubic foot passing a given point during 1 second. This rate is equivalent to approximately 7.48 gallons per second, or 1.98 acre-feet per day.

current: the portion of a stream or body of water which is moving with a velocity much greater than the average of the rest of the water. The progress of the water is principally concentrated in the current.

current velocity: the velocity of water flow in a stream, measured in units of length per unit of time, such as feet per second (fps).

cutoff: where the stream cuts through the neck of a meander bend.

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Water Resource Term D

dam: a structure of earth, rock, or concrete designed to form a basin and hold water back to make a pond, lake, or reservoir.

dead end: the end of a water main that is not connected to other parts of the distribution system.

decomposable waste: waste that under suitable natural conditions can be transformed through biological and chemical processes into compounds that do not impair water quality.

deionized water: water free of inorganic chemicals.

delta: an alluvial deposit made of rock particles (sediment, and debris) dropped by a stream as it enters a body of water.

demand: the number of units of something that will be purchased at various prices at a point in time.

dense non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL): non-aqueous phase liquids, such as chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents or petroleum fractions, with a specific gravity greater than 1.0 that sink through the water column until they reach a confining layer. Because they are at the bottom of aquifers instead of floating on the water table, typical monitoring wells do not indicate their presence.

density: a measure of how heavy a specific volume of a solid, liquid, or gas is in comparison to water.

dental fluorosis: disorder caused by excessive absorption of fluorine and characterized by brown staining of teeth.

depletion curve: in hydraulics, a graphical representation of water depletion from storage stream channels, surface soil, and groundwater. A depletion curve can be drawn for base flow, direct runoff, or total flow.

deposit: something dropped or left behind by moving water, as sand or mud.

deposition: the laying down of material by erosion or transport by water or air.

desalination: the process of salt removal from sea or brackish water.

detection limit: the lowest level that can be determined by a specific analytical procedure or test method.

detention time: the time required for a volume of water to pass through a tank at a given rate of flow; in storage reservoirs, the length of time water will be held before being used.

detergent: synthetic washing agent that helps remove dirt and oil. Some contain compounds toxic to bacteria that are useful in the wastewater treatment process; other contain nutrients such as phosphorous that may encourage algae growth when they are in wastewater that reaches receiving waters.

detritus: decaying organic matter (mostly leaves and other matter from vegetation).

dewater: remove or separate a portion of the water in a sludge or slurry to dry the sludge so it can be handled and disposed; remove or drain the water from a tank, trench, or aquifer.

diatomaceous: consisting of or abounding in diatoms, a class of unicellular or colonial algae having a silicified cell wall that persists as a skeleton after death.

digester: in wastewater treatment, a unit in which anaerobic bacterial action is induced and accelerated in order to break down and stabilize organic matter removed from the treatment process.

diluting water: distilled water that has been stabilized, buffered, and aerated. Used in the BOD test.

dilution ratio: the critical low flow of the receiving water at the point of recycled water discharge divided by the flow of the discharge. Is used in the biomonitoring test to simulate in-stream conditions that organisms will be exposed to during critical low-flow times.

discharge: the volume of water that passes a given point within a given period of time. It is an all-inclusive outflow term, describing a variety of flows such as from a pipe to a stream, or from a stream to a lake or ocean.

discharge permit: a permit issued by a state or the federal government to discharge effluent into waters of the state or the United States. In many states both State and federal permits are required.

discharger: any person who discharges waste that could affect the quality of state waters. The term includes any person who owns, or is responsible for the operation of, a waste management unit such as a wastewater treatment plant.

disinfectant: a chemical or physical process that kills or inactivates pathogenic organisms in water. Chlorine is the most commonly used disinfectant for recycled water, potable water supplies, wells, and swimming pools. Other disinfectants include ozone, bromine, iodine, chlorine dioxide, heat, and ultraviolet light.

disinfection: the killing of the larger portion of the harmful and objectionable bacteria in the sewage. Usually accomplished by introduction of chlorine, but more and more facilities are using exposure to ultraviolet radiation, which renders the bacteria sterile.

disinfection byproducts: halogenated organic chemicals formed when water is disinfected.

dispersion: the movement and spreading of contaminants out and down in an aquifer.

displacement: distance by which portions of the same geological layer are offset from each other by a fault.

dissolve: the process by which solid particles mix molecule by molecule with a liquid and appear to become part of the liquid.

dissolved oxygen (DO): amount of oxygen gas dissolved in a given quantity of water at a given temperature and atmospheric pressure. It is usually expressed as a concentration in parts per million or as a percentage of saturation.

dissolved solids: inorganic material contained in water or wastes. Excessive dissolved solids make water unsuitable for drinking or industrial uses.

distillation: water treatment method where water is boiled to steam and condensd in a separate reservoir. Contaminants with higher boiling points than water do not vaporize and remain in the boiling flask.

distilled water: water that has been treated by boiling and condensation to remove solids, inorganics, and some organic chemicals.

diversion: to remove water from a water body. Diversions may be used to protect bottomland from hillside runoff, divert water away from active gullies, or protect buildings from runoff.

downgradient: the direction that groundwater flows; similar to “downstream” for surface water.

draft: the act of drawing or removing water from a tank, reservoir or groundwater supply.

drainage area: of a stream at a specified location is that area, measured in a horizontal plane, enclosed by a topographic divide from which direct surface runoff from precipitation normally drains by gravity into the stream above the specified location.

drainage reuse: reuse of agricultural drainage on salt-tolerant crops.

drainage well: a well drilled to carry excess water off agricultural fields. Because they act as a drain from the surface to the groundwater below, drainage wells can contribute to groundwater pollution.

drawdown: the drop in the water table or level of groundwater when water is being pumped from a well; the amount of water used from a tank or reservoir; the drop in the water level of a tank or reservoir.

dredging: removal of mud from the bottom of water bodies. This can disturb the ecosystem and cause silting that kills aquatic life. Dredging of contaminated mud can expose biota (the flora and fauna of a region) to heavy metals and other toxics. Dredging activities may be subject to regulation under state and federal laws.

driller’s well log: a log kept at the time of drilling showing the depth, thickness, character of the different strata penetrated, location of water-bearing strata, depth, size, and character of casing installed.

dripstone: deposits of calcium carbonate that include stalactites, stalagmites, columns, and cave pearls.

drought: although there is no universally accepted definition of drought, it is generally the term applied to periods of less than average precipitation over a certain period of time. In south Texas ranchers say drought begins as soon as it stops raining.

duplicates: two separate samples with separate containers taken at the same time at the same place.

Water Resource Term E

ecoregion: a geographic area over which the macroclimate is sufficiently uniform to permit development of similar ecosystems on sites with similar geophysical properties.

ecosphere: total of all the ecosystems on the planet, along with their interactions; the sphere of air, water, and land in which all life is found.

ecosystem: the interacting system of a biological community and its non-living environmental surroundings; a complex system composed of a community of fauna and flora, taking into account the chemical and physical environment with which the system is interrelated.

ecotone: a transition zone between two distinctly different ecosystems or communities.

eddy viscosity: a model parameter that reproduces the effects of turbulent mixing in fluid flow.

Edwards Aquifer: an arch-shaped belt of porous, water bearing limestones composed of the Comanche Peak, Edwards, and Georgetown formations trending from west to east to northeast through Kinney, Uvalde, Medina, Bexar, Comal, Hays, Travis, and Williamson counties.

Edwards outcrop: where the Edwards and associated limestone formations are found at the surface. This area is also referred to as the Recharge Zone.

effective porosity: the portion of pore space in saturated permeable material where the movement of water takes place.

effective precipitation: the part of precipitation which produces runoff; a weighted average of current and antecedent precipitation “effective” in correlating with runoff. It is also that part of the precipitation falling on an irrigated area which is effective in meeting the requirements of consumptive use.

effluent: any substance, particularly a liquid, that enters the environment from a point source. Generally refers to wastewater from a sewage treatment or industrial plant.

effluent limitation: restrictions established by a a regulating agency such as a State or the EPA in an NPDES permit on quantities, rates, and concentrations in wastewater discharges.

electrodialysis: a process which uses an electrical current and an arrangement of permeable membranes to separate soluble minerals from water. It is often used to desalinate salt or brackish water.

electrofishing: a biological collection method that uses electric current to facilitate capturing fishes.

embeddedness: a measure of the degree that gravel and larger substrates are surrounded by fine particles (silt and sand).

endangered species: one having so few individual survivors that the species could soon become extinct in all or part of its region.

endemism: the characteristic of being confined to or indigenous in, a certain area or region.

enrichment: the addition of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous from wastewater effluent or agricultural runoff to surface water. Enrichment greatly increases the growth potential for algae and other aquatic plants.

enteric viruses: a category of viruses related to human excreta found in waterways.

entrain: to trap bubbles in water either mechanically through turbulence or chemically through a reaction.

environment: aggregate of external conditions that influence the life of an individual organism or population.

environmental indicator: a measurement, statistic or value that provides evidence of the effects of environmental management programs or of the state or condition of the environment.

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS): a document that analyzes the effects of major federal projects on the environment. Required by the National Environmental Policy Act. It must be filed with the President and the Council on Environmental Quality, and made available to the public.

EPA: Environmental Protection Agency. The federal regulatory agency responsible for protecting environmental quality throughout the nation. Also acts in an oversight role to state environmental agencies that carry out federal laws.

epilimnion: warm, less dense top layer in a stratified lake.

erosion: the wearing away of the land surface by wind, water, ice or other geologic agents. Erosion occurs naturally from weather or runoff but is often intensified by human land use practices.

escarpment: the topographic expression of a fault.

estuarine waters: deepwater tidal habitats and tidal wetlands that are usually enclosed by land but have access to the ocean and are at least occasionally diluted by freshwater runoff from the land (such as bays, mouths of rivers, salt marshes, lagoons).

estuarine zone: area near the coastline that consists of estuaries and coastal saltwater wetlands.

estuary: thin zone along a coastline where freshwater system(s) and river(s) meet and mix with a salty ocean (such as a bay, mouth of a river, salt marsh, lagoon).

euphotic zone: surface layer of an ocean, lake, or other body of water through which light can penetrate. Also known as the zone of photosynthesis.

eutrophic: having a large or excessive supply of plant nutrients (nitrates and phosphates).

eutrophication (natural): an excess of plant nutrients from natural erosion and runoff from the land in an aquatic ecosystem supporting a large amount of aquatic life that can deplete the oxygen supply.

evaporation: the change by which any substance is converted from a liquid state and carried of in vapor.

evapotranspiration: combination of evaporation and transpiration of water into the atmosphere from living plants and soil.

external cost: cost of production or consumption that must be borne by society; not by the producer.

extinction: complete disappearance of a species because of failure to adapt to environmental change.

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Water Resource Term F

facultative bacteria: bacteria that can live under aerobic or anaerobic conditions.

fecal coliform: the portion of the coliform bacteria group which is present in the intestinal tracts and feces of warm-blooded animals. A common pollutant in water.

fen: a type of wetland that accumulates peat deposits, but not as much as a bog. Fens are less acidic than bogs, deriving most of their water from groundwater rich in calcium and magnesium.

fermentation, anaerobic: process in which carbohydrates are converted in the absence of oxygen to hydrocarbons (such as methane).

field capacity: the amount of water held in soil against the pull of gravity.

filter: a device used to remove solids from a mixture or to separate materials. Materials are frequently separated from water using filters.

filtration: the mechanical process which removes particulate matter by separating water from solid material, usually by passing it through sand.

finite difference: a method of solving the governing equations of a numerical model by dividing the spatial domain into a mesh of nodes. Solution of the governing equations is approximated from values at the node locations.

finite element: a method of solving the governing equations of a numerical model by dividing the spatial domain into elements in each of which the solution of the governing equations is approximated by a continuous function.

finite volume: a method of solving the governing equations of a numerical model by dividing the spatial domain into a mesh of nodes and corresponding volumes around each node. Solution of the governing equations is obtained from approximation of the fluxes across the boundaries of adjacent volumes.

“first in time, first in right”: phrase indicating that older water rights have priority over more recent rights if there is not enough water to satisfy all rights.

fixed ground water: water held in saturated material that it is not available as a source of water for pumping.

flashiness: a measure of a river or stream’s tendency to carry a high percentage of its flow volume in large, infrequent events rather than more moderate flows that occur frequently.

flocculation: large scale treatment process involving gentle stirring whereby small particles in flocs are collected into larger particles so their weight causes them to settle to the bottom of the treatment tank.

flood: an overflow or inundation that comes from a river or other body of water and causes or threatens damage. It can be any relatively high streamflow overtopping the natural or artificial banks in any reach of a stream. It is also a relatively high flow as measured by either gage height or discharge quantity.

flood frequency: how often, on average, a discharge of a given magnitude occurs at a particular location on a stream. Usually expressed as the probability that the discharge will exceed some size in a single year (for example, the 100 year flood has a 1 percent probability of being equaled or exceeded in any one year).

floodplain: land next to a river that becomes covered by water when the river overflows its banks .

flora: plant population of a region.

flow: the rate of water discharged from a source expressed in volume with respect to time.

flow augmentation: the addition of water to meet flow needs.

flow duration curve: a measure of the range and variability of a stream’s flow. The flow duration curve represents the percent of time during which specified flow rates are exceeded at a given location. This is usually presented as a graph of flow rate (discharge) versus percent of time that flows are greater than, or equal to, that flow.

flow meter: a gauge indicating the velocity and/or volume of a flowing liquid.

flow-sensitive habitats: habitats that show hydraulic response to relatively small changes in streamflow. Responses may be reflected in changes in depth, velocity patterns, wetted width and/or habitat area. Example are shallow-water, edge, and riffle habitats.

flowing artesian well: a special case of an artesian well where a water well drilled into a confined aquifer has enough hydraulic pressure for the water to rise to a height above ground surface and to flow at the surface without pumping.

flume: a natural or artificially made channel that diverts water.

flush: to open a cold-water tap to clear out all the water which may have been sitting for a long time in the pipes; to force large amounts of water through a system to clean out piping or tubing and storage or process tanks.

foodweb: a model structure used to represent the links between organisms within an environment, based upon the order in which various organisms consume one another.

forebay: the water behind a dam.

forfeited water right: a water right canceled because of several consecutive years of nonuse.

freeboard: the vertical distance between the lowest point along the top of a surface impoundment dike, berm, levee, treatment works or other similar feature and the surface of the liquid contained therein.

free ground water: water in interconnected pore spaces in the zone of saturation down to the first impervious barrier, moving under the control of the water table slope.

freezing: the change of a liquid into a solid as temperature decreases. For water, the freezing point is 32 F or 0 C.

fresh water: water containing less than 1,000 parts per million (ppm) of dissolved solids of any type.

fresh water inflow requirements: freshwater flows required to maintain the natural salinity, nutrient, and sediment delivery in a bay or estuary that supports their unique biological communities and ensures a healthy ecosystem.

fresh:salt water interface: the region where fresh water and salt water meet. In the Edwards region, it is commonly referred to as the “bad water line”, although it is zone and not a line.

frost: a covering of minute ice crystals on a cold surface.

Froude number: a dimensionless number comparing inertial and gravitational forces. Used to quantify the resistance of an object moving through water, and compare objects of different sizes. Froude numbers greater than 1 correspond to supercritical flow, less than 1 to subcritical flow.

furrow irrigation: irrigation method in which water travels through the field by means of small channels between each group of rows.

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Water Resource Term G

gaging station: the site on a stream, lake or canal where hydrologic data is collected.

gallon: A unit of volume. A U.S. gallon contains 231 cubic inches, 0.133 cubic feet, or 3.785 liters. One U.S. gallon of water weighs 8.3 lbs.

game fish: a species such as trout, salmon, or bass, caught for sport.

gas chromatograph: an instrument that identifies the molecular composition and concentrations of various chemicals in water and soil samples.

geohydrology: a term which denotes the branch of hydrology relating to subsurface or subterranean waters; that is, to all waters below the surface.

geologic erosion: normal or natural erosion caused by geological processes acting over long geologic periods and resulting in the wearing away of mountains, the building up of floodplains, coastal plains, etc.

geopressured reservoir: a geothermal reservoir consisting of porous sands containing water or brine at high temperature or pressure.

geyser: a periodic thermal spring that results from the expansive force of super heated steam.

giardia lamblia: a protozoa found in the feces of infected humans and animals that can cause severe gastrointestinal ailments. It is a common contaminant of surface waters.

glacier: a huge mass of land ice that consists of recrystallized snow and moves slowly downslope or outward.

grab sample: a sample taken at a given place and time.

granular activated carbon: pure carbon heated to promote “active” sites which can adsorb pollutants. Used in some home water treatment systems to remove certain organic chemicals and radon.

grassed waterway: natural or constructed watercourse or outlet that is shaped or graded and planted in suitable vegetation for the disposal of runoff water without erosion.

greywater: wastewater from clothes washing machines, showers, bathtubs, handwashing, lavatories and sinks that are not used for disposal of chemical or chemical-biological ingredients.

groundwater: water within the earth that supplies wells and springs; water in the zone of saturation where all openings in rocks and soil are filled, the upper surface of which forms the water table.

groundwater hydrology: the branch of hydrology that deals with groundwater; its occurrence and movements, its replenishment and depletion, the properties of rocks that control groundwater movement and storage, and the methods of investigation and utilization of ground water.

groundwater law: the common law doctrine of riparian rights and the doctrine of prior appropriation as applied to ground water.

groundwater recharge: the inflow to a ground water reservoir.

groundwater reservoir: an aquifer or aquifer system in which ground water is stored. The water may be placed in the aquifer by artificial or natural means.

groundwater runoff: the portion of runoff which has passed into the ground, has become ground water, and has been discharged into a stream channel as spring or seepage water.

groundwater storage: the storage of water in groundwater reservoirs.

guild: a group of species or organisms that use the same environmental resources (habitat, food source, etc.) or life history strategy (such as reproduction) in the same way.

gully: a deeply eroded channel caused by the concentrated flow of water.

gully reclamation: use of small dams of manure and straw; earth, stone,or concrete to collect silt and gradually fill in channels of eroded soil.

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Water Resource Term H

habitat: the native environment or specific surroundings where a plant or animal naturally grows or lives. Habitat includes physical factors such as temperature, moisture, and light together with biological factors such as the presence of food or predator organisms.

habitat indicator: a physical attribute of the environment measured to characterize conditions necessary to support an organism, population, or community in the absence of pollutants. For example, salinity of estuarine waters or substrate type in streams or lakes.

hail: a form of precipitation which forms into balls or lumps of ice over 0.2 inch in diameter. Hail is formed by alternate freezing and melting as precipitation is carried up and down in highly turbulent air currents.

hardpan: a shallow layer of earth material which has become relatively hard and impermeable, usually through the deposition of minerals. In the Edwards region hardpans of clay are common.

hard water: water containing a high level of calcium, magnesium, and other minerals. Hard water reduces the cleansing power of soap and produces scale in hot water lines and appliances.

hardness (water): condition caused by dissolved salts of calcium, magnesium, and iron, such as bicarbonates, carbonates, sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates.

hardwood bottomland: hardwood forested lowlands adjacent to some rivers, especially valuable for wildlife breeding, nesting, and habitat.

head: the pressure of a fluid owing to its elevation, usually expressed in feet of head or in pounds per square inch, since a measure of fluid pressure is the height of a fluid column above a given or known point.

headgate: the gate that controls water flow into irrigation canals and ditches. A watermaster regulates the headgates during water distribution and posts headgate notices declaring official regulations.

heat of vaporization: the amount of heat necessary to convert a liquid (water) into vapor.

heavy water: water in which all the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by deuterium.

herbicide: a chemical used to kill nuisance plants. Herbicides can contain pollutants found in runoff.

heterogenic aquifer: an aquifer that has a variety of forms or characteristics, such as differering permeabilities. The Edwards is highly heterogenic.

high flow pulses: the component of an instream flow regime that represents short-duration, in-channel, high flow events following storm events. They maintain important physical habitat features and longitudinal connectivity along the river channel.

holding pond: a small basin or pond designed to hold sediment laden or contaminated water until it can be treated to meet water quality standards or be used in some other way.

holding time: the maximum amount of time a sample may be stored before analysis.

homogenous aquifer: an aquifer that has similar forms or characteristics throughout, such as a uniform gravel aquifer. The Edwards is not homogenous, it is highly heterogenic.

hydraulic conductivity: the rate at which water can move through a permeable medium.

hydraulic control: a feature in a stream (such as a constriction or a weir) that controls the upstream water surface elevation.

hydraulic gradient: the direction of groundwater flow due to changes in the depth of the water table.

hydraulic model: a computer model of a segment of river used to evaluate hydraulic conditions.

hydraulic roughness: an estimate of the resistance to flow due to energy loss caused by friction between the channel and the water. Chezy’s and Manning’s roughness are two different ways to express this parameter.

hydrocarbons: chemical compounds that consist entirely of carbon and hydrogen; also referred to as volatile organic compound.

hydroelectric plant: electric power plant in which the energy of falling water is used to spin a turbine generator to produce electricity.

hydrogeology: the geology of groundwater, with particular emphasis on the chemistry and movement of water.

hydrograph: a chart that measures the amount of water flowing past a point as a function of time.

hydrologic balance: an accounting of all water inflow to, water outflow from, and changes in water storage within a hydrologic unit over a specified period of time.

hydrologic basin: the drainage area upstream from a given point on a stream.

hydrologic cycle: natural pathway water follows as it changes between liquid, solid, and gaseous states; biogeochemical cycle that moves and recycles water in various forms through the ecosphere. Also called the water cycle.

hydrologic model: a computer model of a watershed used to evaluate how precipitation contributes to flow in streams.

hydrologic unit: is a geographic area representing part or all of a surface drainage basin or distinct hydrologic feature.

hydrology: the science dealing with the properties, distribution, and circulation of water.

hydrolysis: the decomposition of organic compounds by interaction with water.

hydrometer: an instrument used to measure the density of a liquid.

hydropneumatic: a water delivery system, usually small, that maintains water pressure in the distribution system by means of pressure in a compressed air tank.

hydropower: electrical energy produced by falling water.

hygroscopic nuclei: piece of dust or other particle around which water condenses in the atmophere. These tiny droplets then collide and coalesce, with as many as 10,000 nuclei contributing to formation of a raindrop.

hydrosphere: region that includes all the earth’s liquid water, frozen water, floating ice, frozen upper layer of soil, and the small amounts of water vapor in the Earth’s atmosphere.

hydrostatic head: a measure of pressure at a given point in a liquid in terms of the vertical height of a column of the same liquid which would produce the same pressure.

hydrostatic pressure: pressure exerted by or existing within a liquid at rest with respect to adjacent bodies.

hypolimnion: bottom layer of cold water in a lake.

hyporheic zone: the zone under a river or stream comprising substrate whose interstices are filled with water.

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Water Resource Term I

ice: a solid form of water.

imhoff cone: a clear, cone-shaped container used to measure the volume of settleable solids in a specific volume of water.

immiscibility: the inability of two or more substances or liquids to readily dissolve into one another, such as soil and water.

impaired water body: a water body that has been determined under state and federal law as not meeting water quality standards, or having the potential to do so in the future.

imperiled species: declining, rare, or uncommon species; species federally listed as threatened or endangered, or candidates for such; and species with limited distributions.

impermeable: material that does not permit fluids to pass through.

impervious: the quality or state of being impermeable; resisting penetration by water or plant roots. Impervious ground cover like concrete and asphalt affects quantity and quality of runoff.

impoundment: a body of water such as a pond, confined by a dam, dike, floodgate or other barrier. It is used to collect and store water for future use.

Index of Biotic Integrity: a multi-metric measure of biological condition developed from collection of data for fish or other organisms. It consists of metrics in three broad categories: species composition, trophic composition, and organism abundance and condition.

in-line filtration: a pretreatment method in which chemicals are mixed by flowing water; commonly used in pressure filtration installations.

in-situ flushing: introduction of large volumes of water, at times supplemented with cleaning compounds, into soil, waste, or groundwater to flush hazardous contaminants from a site.

in-situ oxidation: technology that oxidizes contaminants dissolved in groundwater, converting them into insoluble compounds.

in-situ stripping: treatment system that removes or strips volatile organic compounds from contaminated groundwater or surface water by forcing an air stream through the water and causing the compounds to evaporate.

in-situ vitrification: technology that treats contaminated soil in place at high temperatures, at 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit or more.

inchoate water right: an unperfected water right.

indicator organisms: microorganisms, such as coliforms, whose presence is indicative of pollution or of more harmful microorganism.

indicator parameters: measurable physical or chemical characteristics or attributes of water or soil-pore moisture used to indicate the possible presence of waste constituents, or the effects of waste constituents on waters.

indicator tests: tests for a specific contaminant, group of contaminants, or constituent which signals the presence of something else (ex., coliforms indicate the presence of pathogenic bacteria).

infiltration: the penetration of water through the ground surface into sub-surface soil or the penetration of water from the soil into sewer or other pipes through defective joints, connections, or manhole walls.

infiltration rate: the quantity of water that can enter the soil in a specified time interval.

inflow: entry of rainwater into a sewer system from sources other than infiltration, such as basement drains, manholes, storm drains, and street washing.

influent: water, wastewater, or other liquid flowing into a reservoir, basin, or treatment plant.

initial dilution: the process that results in the rapid and irreversible turbulent mixing of effluent and receiving water around the point of discharge.

injection well: as defined by the U.S. EPA, any bored, drilled or driven shaft, dug pit or hole in the ground into which waste or fluid is discharged, and any associated subsurface appurtenances, the depth of which is greater than the largest surface dimension of the shaft, pit or hole.

injection zone: a geological formation receiving fluids through a well.

inland freshwater wetlands: swamps, marshes, and bogs found inland beyond the coastal saltwater wetlands.

instream cover: overhanging or instream structure, such as tree roots, undercut streambanks, boulders, or aquatic vegetation that offer protection for aquatic organisms.

instream use: use of water that does not require withdrawal or diversion from its natural watercourse; for example, the use of water for navigation, recreation, and support of fish and wildlife.

interbasin transfer: the physical transfer of water from one watershed to another; regulated by the Texas Water Code.

interceptor sewer: very large sewer lines that collect the flow from main and trunk lines and carry them to treatment plants.

interface: the common boundary between two substances such as water and a solid, water and a gas, or two liquids such as water and oil.

interfacial tension: the strength of the film separating two immiscible fluids (e.g., oil and water) measured in dynes per, or millidynes per, centimeter.

intermittent stream: one that flows periodically.

interstate water: according to law, interstate waters are defined as (1) rivers, lakes and other waters that flow across or form a part of state or international boundaries; (2) waters of the Great Lakes; (3) coastal waters whose scope has been defined to include ocean waters seaward to the territorial limits and waters along the coastline (including inland streams) influenced by the tide.

interstices: the void or empty portion of rock or soil occupied by air or water.

inert waste: waste that does not contain hazardous waste or soluble pollutants at concentrations in excess of applicable water quality objectives, and does not contain significant quantities of decomposable waste.

irrigation efficiency: the percentage of water applied, and which can be accounted for, in the soil moisture increase for consumptive use.

irrigation return flow: water which is not consumptively used by plants and returns to a surface or ground water supply. Under conditions of water right litigation, the definition may be restricted to measurable water returning to the stream from which it was diverted.

irrigation water: water which is applied to assist crops in areas or during times where rainfall is inadequate.

isotherm: line that connects points of equal temperature.

isohyet: line that connects points of equal rainfall.

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Water Resource Term J

jar test: a laboratory procedure that simulates a water treatment plant’s coagulation/flocculation units with differing chemical doses, mix speeds, and settling times to estimate the minimum or ideal coagulant dose required to achieve certain water quality goals.

jet stream: a long narrow meandering current of high-speed winds near the tropopause blowing from a generally westerly direction and often exceeding a speed of 250 miles per hour.

jetteau: a jet of water.

jetter: one (as a geyser) that sends out a jet.

jetty: a structure (as a pier or mole of wood or stone) extending into a sea, lake, or river to influence the current or tide or to protect a harbor.

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Water Resource Term K

kalema: a violent surf that occurs on the coast of the Guinea region, West Africa.

kame: a short ridge, hill, or mound of stratified drift deposited by glacial meltwater.

kame terrace: a terrace of stratified sand and and gravel deposited by streams between a glacier and an adjacent valley wall.

kelp beds: significant aggregations of a large, fast growing marine algae throughout the water column.

key habitats: flow-sensitive habitats as well as habitats that support key species.

key species: species that are targeted for instream flow assessment or more generally taxa of interest; may include lotic-adapted species, imperiled species, sport fishes, or other species related to study objectives.

kinetic energy: energy possessed by a moving object or water body.

kilogram: one thousand grams.

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Water Resource Term L

laboratory water: purified water used in the laboratory as a basis for making up solutions or making dilutions. Water devoid of interfering substances.

lag time: the time from the center of a unit storm to the peak discharge or center of volume of the corresponding unit hydrograph.

lagoon: a shallow pond where sunlight, bacterial action, and oxygen work to purify wastewater. Lagoons are typically used for the storage of wastewaters, sludges, liquid wastes, or spent nuclear fuel.

lake: an inland body of water, usually fresh water, formed by glaciers, river drainage etc. Usually larger than a pool or pond.

land application: discharge of wastewater onto the ground for treatment or reuse.

landscape impoundment: body of reclaimed water which is used for aesthetic enjoyment or which otherwise serves a function not intended to include contact recreation.

Langelier Saturation Index (LSI): an index reflecting the equilibrium pH of a water with respect to calcium and alkalinity; used in stabilizing water to control both corrosion and scale deposition.

leachate: water containing contaminants which leaks from a disposal site such as a landfill or dump.

leachate collection system: a system that gathers leachate and pumps it to the surface for treatment.

leaching: extraction or flushing out of dissolved or suspended materials from the soil, solid waste, or another medium by water or other liquids as they percolate down through the medium to groundwater.

lentic system: a nonflowing or standing body of fresh water, such as a lake or pond.

levee: a natural or man-made earthen obstruction along the edge of a stream, lake, or river. Usually used to restrain the flow of water out of a river bank.

limestone: rock that consists mainly of calcium carbonate and is chiefly formed by accumulation of organic remains.

limiting factor: factor such as temperature, light, water, or a chemical that limits the existence, growth, abundance, or distribution of an organism.

limnology: scientific study of physical, chemical, and biological conditions in lakes, ponds, and streams.

Lindane: a pesticide that causes adverse health effects when present in domestic water supplies and is toxic to freshwater fish and aquatic life.

liner: a relatively impermeable barrier designed to keep leachate inside a landfill; an insert or sleeve for sewer pipes to prevent leakage or infiltration.

liquid: a state of matter, neither gas nor solid, that flows and takes the shape of its container.

littoral zone: area on or near the shore of a body of water.

lotic-adapted species: species for which all or part of their life history is dependent on flowing water.

lotic system: a flowing body of fresh water, such as a river or stream.

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Water Resource Term M

macrointervebrate: an animal without a backbone, large enough to be seen without magnification and unable to pass through a 0.595 mm mesh.

macrophyte: macroscopic plants in the aquatic environment. The most common macrophytes are the rooted vascular plants that are usually arranged in zones in aquatic ecosystems and restricted in their area by the extent of illumination through the water and sediment deposition along the shoreline.

Manning’s equation: an empirical equation used to estimate the average hydraulic conditions of flow within a channel cross section.

Manning’s roughness: a coefficient in Manning’s equation that accounts for energy loss due to the friction between the channel and the water. Many hydraulic models use this coefficient to estimate resistance to flow.

mariculture: cultivation of fish and shellfish in estuarine and coastal areas.

marsh: an area periodically inundated and treeless and often characterized by grasses, cattails, and other monocotyledons

MCL – Maximum Contaminant Level: the maximum level of a contaminant allowed in water by federal law. Based on health effects and currently available treatment methods.

mean column velocity: the average velocity of fluid flow measured in a column extending from the surface of the water to the bed of the channel. Often referred to simply as “velocity” or “current velocity”.

meander bend: a windings or sinuous section of a stream channel. May become an oxbow lake if cut off from the mainstem.

median particle size: value for which half the particles in a sample have a greater diameter and half a lesser diameter.

median streamflow: the rate of discharge of a stream for which there are equal numbers of greater and lesser flow occurrences during a specified period.

melting: the changing of a solid into a liquid.

meltwater: water that comes from the melting ice of a glacier or a snowbank.

mesohabitat: basic structural elements of a river or stream such as pools, backwaters, runs, glides, and riffles.

mesotrophic: reservoirs and lakes that contain moderate quantities of nutrients and are moderately productive in terms of aquatic animal and plant life.

meteoric water: groundwater which originates in the atmosphere and reaches the zone of saturation by infiltration and percolation.

method blank: laboratory grade water taken through the entire analytical procedure to determine if samples are being accidentally contaminated by chemicals in the lab

methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE): an additive originally put in gasoline to reduce air pollution, but later found to be a source of groundwater pollution.

methoxychlor: pesticide that causes adverse health effects when found in domestic water supplies. It is also toxic to aquatic life.

methyl orange alkalinity: A measure of the total alkalinity in a water sample in which the color of methyl orange reflects the change in level.

micrograms per liter – Ug/L: micrograms per liter of water. One thousands micrograms per liter is equivalent to 1 milligram per liter. This measure is equivalent to parts per billion (ppb)

microhabitat: zones of similar physical characteristics within a mesohabitat unit, differentiated by aspects such as substrate type, water velocity, and water depth.

migration: the movement of oil, gas, contaminants, water, or other liquids through porous and permeable rock.

milligrams per liter – mg/L: milligrams per liter of water. This measure is equivalent to parts per million (ppm).

minimum streamflow: the specific amount of water reserved to support aquatic life, to minimize pollution, or for recreation. It is subject to the priority system and does not affect water rights established prior to its institution.

mixed liquor: a mixture of activated sludge and water containing organic matter undergoing treatment in an aeration tank.

mixing zone: a limited volume of receiving water that is allocated for diluting a wastewater discharge without causing adverse effects to the overall water body.

moisture content: the amount of water lost from soil upon drying to a constant weight, expressed as the weight per unit of dry soil or as the volume of water per unit bulk volume of the soil.

moisture holding capacity: the amount of liquid that can be held against gravity, by waste materials or soil, without generating free liquid.

molecule: the smallest division of a compound that still retains or exhibits all the properties of the substance.

modified Wentworth scale: a specific scale used to classify substrate particles by their diameter. Categories in this scale include boulder, cobble, pebble, gravel, sand, silt, and clay.

monitoring well: a well used to obtain water quality samples or measure groundwater levels.

monomictic: lakes and reservoirs that are relatively deep, do not freeze over during winter, and undergo a single stratification and mixing cycle during the year (usually in the fall).

mudballs: round material that forms in filters and gradually grows when not removed by backwashing.

multiple use: Use of bodies of water for more than one purpose, such as recreational purposes, fishing, and water supply.

municipal discharge: discharge of effluent from treatment plants that receive wastewater from households, commercial establishments, and industries.

municipal sewage: sewage from a community which may be composed of domestic sewage, industrial wastes or both.

municipal sludge: semi-liquid residue remaining from the treatment of municipal water and wastewater.

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Water Resource Term N

National Estuary Program: a program established under the Clean Water Act Amendments of 1987 to conserve and manage estuaries, restore and maintain their chemical, physical, and biological integrity, and control point and nonpoint pollution sources.

National Municipal Plan: a U.S. EPA policy created in 1984 to bring all publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) into compliance with Clean Water Act requirements.

National Oil and Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan: the federal regulation that guides determination of the sites to be corrected under the Superfund program, and the program to prevent or control spills into surface waters or elsewhere.

National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES): a provision of the Clean Water Act that prohibits discharge of pollutants into waters of the United States unless a permit is issued that complies with the Clean Water Act. In Texas, the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) administers the NPDES program and issues TPDES permits.

National Priorities List (NPL): EPA’s list of the most serious uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites identified for possible long-term remedial action under Superfund. The list is based primarily on the score a site receives from the Hazard Ranking System. EPA is required to update the NPL at least once a year. A site must be on the NPL to receive money for remedial action from the Superfund Trust Fund.

National Response Team (NRT): representatives of 13 federal agencies that, as a team, coordinate federal responses to nationally significant incidents of pollution and provide advice and technical assistance to the responding agencies.

National Response Center: The 24-hour a day federal operations center receives notifications of all releases of oil and hazardous substances into the environment. Operated by the U.S. Coast Guard, the Center evaluates all reports and notifies the appropriate agency.

natural flow: the rate of water movement past a specified point on a natural stream. The flow comes from a drainage area in which there has been no stream diversion caused by storage, import, export, return flow, or change in consumptive use caused by man-controlled modifications to land use. Natural flow rarely occurs in a developed country.

natural resource: any form of matter or energy obtained from the environment that meets human needs.

naturalized conditions: an estimate of natural conditions obtained by attempting to remove effects of human activities from a set of measured conditions.

Navier-Stokes equations: a set of equations that describe the physics governing the motion of a fluid. In addition to applications in hydraulic studies of rivers and streams, these equations are used to model weather, ocean currents, and aerodynamics.

nephelometric: method of measuring turbidity in a water sample by passing light through the sample and measuring the amount of light deflected.

NIPDWR: National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations.

nitrate: a compound containing nitrogen that can exist in water as a dissolved gas. It can have harmful effects on humans and animals. Nitrates in water can cause severe illness in infants and domestic animals. A plant nutrient and inorganic fertilizer, nitrate is found in septic systems, animal feed lots, agricultural fertilizers, manure, industrial wastewaters, sanitary landfills, and garbage dumps.

nitrogen: a plant nutrient that can cause an overabundance of bacteria and algae when high amounts are present, leading to a depletion of oxygen and fish kills. Several forms occur in water, including ammonia, nitrate, nitrite or elemental nitrogen. High levels of nitrogen in water are usually caused by agricultural runoff or improperly operating wastewater treatment plants.

non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL): contaminants that remain undiluted as the original bulk liquid in the subsurface, such as spilled oil.

nonconsumptive use: using water in a way that does not reduce the supply. Examples include hunting, fishing, boating, water-skiing, swimming, and some power production.

noncontact recreation: recreational pursuits not involving a significant risk of water ingestion, including fishing, commercial and recreational boating, and limited body contact incidental to shoreline activity.

nondegradation: an environmental policy that does not allow any lowering of naturally occurring water quality regardless of pre-established health standards.

nonporous: something which does not allow water to pass through it.

nonpoint source: source of pollution in which wastes are not released at one specific, identifiable point but from a number of points that are spread out and difficult to identify and control.

nonpotable: not suitable for drinking.

nonthreshold pollutant: substance or condition harmful to a particular organism at any level or concentration.

NTU: nephlometric turbidity units.

nutrient: as a pollutant, any element or compound, such as phosphorous or nitrogen, that fuels abnormally high organic growth in aquatic ecosystems.

nutrient cycle: the cyclic conversions of nutrients from one form to another within biological communities. For example, the production and release of molecular oxygen from water during photosynthesis by plants and the subsequent reduction of atmospheric oxygen to water by the respiratory metabolism of other biota.

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Water Resource Term O

oligotrophic: having a low supply of plant nutrients.

on-site sewage treatment: any individual residential sewage treatment and wastewater dispersal system, such as a septic system.

open system: system in which energy and matter are exchanged between the system and its environment, for example, a living organism.

operable unit: a term used by the Superfund program to describe a discrete action that comprises an incremental step toward comprehensively addressing site problems. The cleanup of a site can be divided into a number of operable units, depending on the complexity of the problems associated with the site. Operable units may address geographical portions of a site, specific site problems, or initial phases of an action, or may consist of any set of actions performed over time or any actions that are concurrent but located in different parts of a site. A typical operable unit would be removal of drums and tanks from the surface of a site.

organic chemicals: chemicals containing carbon.

organism: any form of animal or plant life.

organism abundance and condition: that portion of an Index of Biotic Integrity that is a metric measuring species abundance and condition, including proportion of individuals as hybrids and proportion of individuals with disease, tumors, physical damage, or physical anomalies.

organotins: chemical compounds used in antifoulant paints to protect the hulls of boats and ships, buoys, and pilings from marine organisms such as barnacles.

orogeny: period of mountain-building.

orographic precipitation: rainfall that occurs as a result of warm, humid air being forced to rise by topographic features such as mountains. Precipitation on the Edwards Plateau is slightly higher because of the orographic effect of the escarpment and hills.

osmosis: the passage of a liquid from a weak solution to a more concentrated solution across a semi-permeable membrane that allows passage of the solvent (water) but not the dissolved solids.

outcrop: exposed at the surface. The Edwards limestone outcrops in its recharge zone.

outfall: the place where a wastewater treatment plant discharges treated water into the environment.

outwash: a deposit of sand and gravel formed by streams of meltwater flowing from a glacier.

overbank flows: the component of an instream flow regime that represents infrequent, high flow events that exceed the normal channel. These flows maintain riparian areas and provide lateral connectivity between the river channel and active flood plain. They may also provide life-cycle cues for various species.

overdraft: pumping water from a groundwater basin or aquifer in excess of the supply flowing into the basin; results in a depletion or “mining” of the groundwater in the basin.

overflow rate: one of the guidelines for design of the settling tanks and clarifiers in a treatment plant.

overland flow: a land application technique that cleanses wastewater by allowing it to flow over a sloped surface. As the water flows over the surface, contaminants are absorbed and the water is collected at the bottom of the slope for reuse.

oxbow: a U-shaped bend in a river or stream that may or may not be cut off from the mainstem.

oxbow lake: a U-shaped water body formed when a meander bend is cut off from the mainstem of a river or stream to create a lake.

oxygen demanding waste: organic water pollutants that are usually degraded by bacteria if there is sufficient dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water.

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Water Resource Term P

pathogen: microorganisms which can cause disease.

peak flow: in a wastewater treatment plant, the highest flow expected to be encoutered under any operational conditions, including periods of high rainfall and prolonged periods of wet weather.

Peclet number: the relationship between properties of the mesh, fluid velocity, and eddy viscosity for a hydraulic computer model.

pentachorophenol: toxic substance usually used as a wood preservative.

perched water table: groundwater standing unprotected over a confined zone.

perchloroethylene: a chlorinated solvent commonly used in dry cleaning. Also known as tetrachloroethylene.

percolation: the movement of water through the subsurface soil layers, usually continuing downward to the groundwater or water table reservoirs.

percolating waters: waters passing through the ground beneath the Earth’s surface without a definite channel.

perfected water right: a water right which indicates that the uses anticipated by an applicant, and made under permit, were made for beneficial use. Usually it is irrevocable unless voluntarily canceled or forfeited due to several consecutive years of nonuse.

perennial stream: one that flows all year round.

permeability: the ability of a water bearing material to transmit water. It is measured by the quantity of water passing through a unit cross section, in a unit time, under 100 percent hydraulic gradient.

petroleum derivatives: chemicals formed when gasoline breaks down in contact with water.

pH: numeric value that describes the intensity of the acid or basic (alkaline) conditions of a solution. The pH scale is from 0 to 14, with the neutral point at 7.0. Values lower than 7 indicate the presence of acids and greater than 7.0 the presence of alkalis (bases). Technically speaking, pH is the logarithm of the reciprocal (negative log) of the hydrogen ion concentration (hydrogen ion activity) in moles per liter.

phenolphthalein alkalinity: the alkalinity in a water sample measured by the amount of standard acid needed to lower the pH to a level of 8.3 as indicated by the change of color of the phenolphthalein from pink to clear.

phenols: organic compounds that are byproducts of petroleum refining; tanning; and textile, dye, and resin manufacturing. Low concentrations cause taste and odor problems in water; higher concentrations can kill aquatic life and humans.

phosphorous: a plant nutrient that can cause an overabundance of bacteria and algae when high amounts are present, leading to a depletion of oxygen and fish kills. High levels of phosphorous in water are usually caused by agricultural runoff or improperly operating wastewater treatment plants.

phreatic zone: the area in an aquifer in which relatively all pores and fractures are saturated with water. The phreatic zone may fluctuate with changes of season and during wet and dry periods.

phreatophytes: plants that send their roots into or below the capillary zone to use ground water.

physical weathering: breaking down of parent rock into bits and pieces by exposure to temperature and changes and the physical action of moving ice and water, growing roots, and human activities such as farming and construction.

physiographic province: an area with similar characteristics based on geology, soil type, and topography.

phytoplankton: free-floating, mostly microscopic aquatic plants.

piezometer: a nonpumping well, generally of small diameter, for measuring the elevation of a water table.

piezometric surface: the imaginary surface to which groundwater rises under hydrostatic pressure in wells or springs.

plankton: microscopic floating plant and animal organisms of lakes, rivers, and oceans.

plate tectonics: refers to the folding and faulting of rock and flow of molten lava involving lithospheric plates in the earth’s crust and upper mantle.

plug: cement, grout, or other material used to fill and seal a hole drilled for a water well.

plug flow: type of flow that occurs in tanks, basins, or reactors when a slug of water moves through without ever dispersing or mixing with the rest of the water flowing through.

plume: the area taken up by contaminant(s) in an aquifer.

pluvial: pertaining to precipitation.

point source: source of pollution that involves discharge of wastes from an identifiable point, such as a smokestack or sewage treatment plant.

point velocity: velocity measured at a single point in the water column of flowing water.

pollution: undesireable change in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of the air, water, or land that can harmfully affect the health, survival, or activities of human or other living organisms.

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): toxic industrial chemical compound substances that were used in the manufacture of plastics and as insulating fluids in electrical transformers and capacitors. Banned since 1979, PCBs continue to be found in fish/animals.

pond: a body of water usually smaller than a lake and larger than a pool either naturally or artificially confined.

porous: something which allows water to pass through it.

potable: suitable, safe, or prepared for drinking.

potentiometric surface: the surface to which water in an aquifer can rise by hydrostatic pressure. For karst aquifers like the Edwards, the potentiometric surface is not an especially meaningful concept. Every well is different, because of the complexity of the underground formation with many conduits, caverns, and different units separated by faults. The potentiometric surface is a more relevant measure when the aquifer involved is homogenous, such as one composed of gravel.

ppb – parts per billion: number of parts of a chemical found in one billion parts of a solid, liquid, or gaseous mixture. Equivalent to micrograms per liter (Ug/L).

ppm – parts per million: number of parts of a chemical found in one million parts of a solid, liquid, or gaseous mixture. Equivalent to milligrams per liter (mg/L).

precipitate: a solid which has come out of an aqueous solution. (ex., iron from groundwater precipitates to a rust colored solid when exposed to air).

preservative: a chemical added to a water sample to keep it stable and prevent compounds in it from changing to other forms or to prevent microorganism densities from changing prior to analysis.

pretreatment: processes used to reduce, eliminate, or alter the nature of wastewater pollutants from non-domestic sources before they are discharged into publicly owned treatment works (POTWs).

price at equilibrium: where supply and demand curves intersect. The price at equilibrium is what allocates resources.

primary treatment: mechanical treatment in which large solids are screened out and suspended solids in the sewage settle out as sludge.

prior appropriation: a doctrine of water law that allocates the rights to use water on a first in time, first in right, basis.

priority date: the date of establishment of a water right. It is determined by adjudication of rights established before the passage of the Water Code. The rights established by application have the application date as the date of priority.

profundal zone: a lake’s deep-water region that is not penetrated by sunlight.

public water system: a system for the provision to the public of water for human consumption through pipes or other constructed conveyances. In Texas, a public water system is one that serves at least 15 service connections or serve at least 25 individuals at least 60 days out of the year.

publicly-owned treatment works (POTW): a wastewater treatment plant that is owned by a state, unit of local government or Indian tribe, usually designed to treat domestic wastewaters. The term also may include devices and systems used by those entities in the storage, treatment, recycling and reclamation of municipal sewage or liquid industrial wastes.

puddle: a small pool of water, usually a few inches in depth and from several inches to several feet in its greatest dimension.

pump: a device which moves, compresses, or alters the pressure of a fluid, such as water or air, being conveyed through a natural or artificial channel.

pump station: mechanical device installed in sewer or water system or other liquidcarrying pipelines to move the liquids to a higher level.

pumped hydroelectric storage: storing water for future use in generating electricity. Excess electrical energy produced during a period of low demand is used to pump water up to a reservoir. When demand is high, the water is released to operate a hydroelectric generator.

pumping test: a test conducted to determine aquifer or well characteristics.

purge: to force a gas through a water sample to liberate volatile chemicals or other gases from the water so their level can be measured.

purgeable organics: volatile organic chemicals which can be forced out of the water sample with relative ease through purging.

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Water Resource Term Q

quarry water: the moisture content of freshly quarried stone, esp. if porous.

quicksilver water: a solution of mercury nitrate used in gilding.

quickwater: the part of a stream that has a strong current; an artificial current or bubbling patch of water just astern of a moving boat.

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Water Resource Term R

rain: water drops which fall to the earth from the air.

rain gage: any instrument used for recording and measuring time, distribution, and the amount of rainfall.

radionuclide: a radioactive particle, man-made or natural, with a distinct atomic weight number. Can have a very long life as a soil or water pollutant.

radius of influence: the radial distance from the center of a wellbore to the point where there is no lowering of the water table or potentiometric surface; the edge of the cone of depression.

rating curve: a graph showing the relationship between water surface elevation and discharge of a stream or river at a given location. Also called a stage-discharge curve.

reach: in general, a length of stream with relatively homogenous characteristics.

recarbonization: process in which carbon dioxide is bubbled into water being treated to lower the pH.

receiving waters: a river, ocean, stream, or other watercourse into which wastewater or treated effluent is discharged.

recharge: refers to water entering an underground aquifer through faults, fractures, or direct absorption.

recharge rate: the quantity of water per unit of time that replenishes or refills an aquifer.

recharge zone: the area where a formation allows available water to enter the aquifer. Generally, that area where the Edwards Aquifer and associated limestones crop out in Kinney, Uvalde, Medina, Bexar, Comal, Hays, Travis, and Williamson counties and the outcrops of other formations in proximity to the Edwards limestone, where faulting and fracturing may allow recharge of the surface waters to the Edwards Aquifer.

reclaimed water: domestic wastewater that is under the direct control of a treatment plant owner/operator which has been treated to a quality suitable for a beneficial use.

recruitment: survival of young plants and animals from birth to a life stage less vulnerable to environmental change.

recurrence interval: average amount of time between events of a given magnitude. For example, there is a 1% chance that a 100-year flood will occur in any given year.

release: as defined by the federal Superfund program, any spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, discharging, injecting, escaping, leaching, dumping, or disposing into the environment of a hazardous or toxic chemical or extremely hazardous substance.

remediation: methods used to remove or contain a toxic spill or hazardous materials from a Superfund site; a generic term used to describe cleanup activities.

reserves: amount of a particular resource in known locations that can be extracted at a profit with present technology and prices.

reservoir: a pond, lake, tank, or basin (natural or human made) where water is collected and used for storage. Large bodies of groundwater are called groundwater reservoirs; water behind a dam is also called a reservoir of water.

residual: amount of a pollutant remaining in the environment after a natural or technological process has occurred.

residual chlorine: the available chlorine which remains in solution after the demand has been satisfied.

residual saturation: saturation level below which fluid drainage will not occur.

residue: the dry solids remaining after the evaporation of a sample of water or sludge.

resilience: the ability of an ecosystem to maintain or restore biodiversity, biotic integrity, and ecological structure and processes following disturbance.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA): a federal statute that requires the safe management and disposal of waste generated nationwide. RCRA was passed in 1976 as an amendment to the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1956 and was last amended in 1984. The 1984 amendments are referred to as the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA). There are three RCRA interrelated programs, which include: 1)the Solid Waste Program (Subtitle D) which sets criteria for municipal solid waste and other non-hazardous waste disposal facilities and prohibits open dumping of solid waste; 2)the Hazardous Waste Program (Subtitle C) which manages hazardous waste from the time it is generated until it is disposed (referred to as cradle to grave); and 3) the Underground Storage Tank Program (Subtitle I), which regulates underground storage, tanks storing petroleum or other hazardous substances.

response variables: environmental features of a river channel on a local or site-specific scale, such as channel shape, cross-sectional dimensions, substrate, bank shape, floodplain characteristics, vegetation, and channel patterns.

retrofitting: installing modern pollution control devices at facilities without making major changes to the facility’s design.

return flow: surface water that returns to the natural environment after diversion for beneficial uses, such as for irrigation.

reverse osmosis: a water treatment method whereby water is forced through a semipermeable membrane which filters out impurities.

right of capture: the idea that the water under a person’s land belongs to that person and they are free to capture and use as much as they want. Also called the “law of the biggest pump”.

rill: a small channel eroded into the soil by surface runoff; can be easily smoothed out or obliterated by normal tillage.

riparian water right: the legal right held by an owner of land contiguous to or bordering on a natural stream or lake, to take water from the source for use on the contiguous land.

riparian zone: a stream and all the vegetation on its banks.

river: a natural stream of water of considerable volume.

river basin: the area drained by a river and its tributaries.

routing parameters: coefficients that, along with mathematical routing equations, can be used to estimate the attenuation and lag (time delay) associated with the movement of flow through a length of stream channel.

runoff: surface water entering rivers, freshwater lakes, or reservoirs.

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Water Resource Term S

safe yield: the annual amount of water that can be taken from a source of supply over a period of years without depleting that source beyond its ability to be replenished naturally in “wet years.”

saline water: water containing more than 1,000 parts per million (ppm) of dissolved solids of any type.

salinity: amount of dissolved salts in a given volume of water.

salt water intrusion: the invasion of fresh surface or ground water by salt water. It may be called seawater intrusion if it comes from the ocean.

salts: minerals that cause salinity. Water may pick up salts as it passes through the air, over and under the ground, or as households and industry use it.

sand filters: devices that remove suspended solids from a wastewater treatment plant effluent or water treatment plant product.

sanitary landfill: landfill that is lined with plastic or concrete or located in clay-rich soils to prevent hazardous substances from leaking into the environment.

sanitary sewers: underground pipes that carry off only domestic or industrial waste, not storm water.

saturated zone: the area below the water table where all open spaces are filled with water under pressure equal to or greater than that of the atmosphere.

saturation: the condition of a liquid when it has taken into solution the maximum possible quantity of a given substance at a given temperature and pressure.

scour: the erosive action of running water in streams, which excavates and carries away material from the bed and banks. Or, pertaining to a place on a streambed scoured by running water.

seal: the impermeable material, such as cement grout bentonite, or puddling clay placed in the annular space between the borehole wall and the casing of a water well to prevent the downhole movement of surface water or the vertical mixing of artestian waters.

secondary treatment: second step in most waste treatment systems, in which bacteria break down the organic parts of sewage wastes; usually accomplished by bringing the sewage and bacteria together in trickling filters or in the activated sludge process. Compare primary treatment, tertiary treatment.

sediment: soil particles, sand, and minerals washed from the land into aquatic systems as a result of natural and human activities.

sediment trapping efficiency: the ratio of sediment retained within the reservoir to the sediment inflow to the reservoir.

sedimentary cycle: biogeochemical cycle in which materials primarily are moved from land to sea and back again.

sedimentation: a large scale water treatment process where heavy solids settle out to the bottom of the treatment tank after flocculation.

seep: a spot where water contained in the ground oozes slowly to the surface and often forms a pool; a small spring.

seepage: percolation of water through the soil from unlined canals, ditches, laterals, watercourses, or water storage facilities.

segment: a water body or portion of a water body that is individually defined and classified. A segment is intended to have relatively homogenous chemical, physical, and hydrological characteristics.

semi-confined aquifer: an aquifer partially confined by soil layers of low permeability in which recharge and discharge can still occur.

senescence: the aging process. Sometimes used to describe lakes or other bodies of water in advanced stages of eutrophication. Also used to describe plants and animals.

separate sewer: a sewer system that carries only sanitary sewage, not stormwater runoff. When a sewer is constructed this way, wastewater treatment plants can be sized to treat sanitary wastes only and all of the water entering the plant receives complete treatment at all times.

septic system: an on-site system designed to treat and dispose of domestic sewage. A typical septic system consists of a tank that receives waste from a residence or business and a system of drainage lines or a pit for disposal of the liquid effluent that remains after decomposition of the solids by bacteria in the tank.

septic tank: underground receptacle for wastewater from a home. The bacteria in the sewage decopose the organic wastes, and the sludge settles to the bottom of the tank. The effluent flows out of the tank into the ground through drain lines.

settleable solids: in sewage, suspended solids that will settle when the sewage is brought to a quiet state for a reasonable length of time, usually two hours.

seven-day two-year low flow (7Q2): the lowest average streamflow for seven consecutive days within a recurrence interval of two years, as statistically determined from historical data. Used in wastewater discharge modeling and permitting to estimate the impact of an effluent discharge on a water body under low-flow conditions.

sewage: The waste and wastewater produced by residential and commercial sources and discharged into sewers.

sewerage: the entire system of sewage collection, treatment, and disposal.

shear stress: the frictional force per unit area exerted on a streambed by flowing water. An important factor in the movement of bed material and description of habitat for some organisms.

short circuiting: when some of the water in tanks or basins flows faster than the rest; shortcircuiting may result in shorter contact, reaction, or settling times than calculated or presumed.

siltation: the deposition of finely divided soil and rock particles upon the bottom of stream and river beds and reservoirs.

sinking: controlling oil spills by using an agent to trap the oil and sink it to the bottom of the body of water where the agent and the oil are biodegraded.

skimming: using a machine to remove oil or scum from the surface of the water.

sleet: precipitation which is a mixture of rain and ice.

slickensides: a smooth striated polished surface produced on rock by movement along a fault.

sludge: solid matter that settles to the bottom of sedimentation tanks in a sewage treatment plant and must be disposed of by digestion or other methods or recycled to the land.

sludge digester: tank in which complex organic substances like sewage sludge are biologically dredged. Energy is released and much of the sewage is converted to methane, carbon dioxide, and water.

slurry: a watery mixture of insoluble matter resulting from some pollution control techniques.

snow: precipitation in the form of branched hexagonal crystals, often mixed with simple ice crystals, which fall more or less continuously from a solid cloud sheet. These crystals may fall either separately or in cohesive clusters forming snowflakes.

soft water: any water that does not contain a significant amount of dissolved minerals such as salts of calcium or magnesium.

soil erodibility: An indicator of a soil’s susceptibility to raindrop impact, runoff, and other eroding processes.

soil moisture: the water contained in the pore space of the unsaturated zone.

sole-source aquifer: an aquifer that supplies 50 percent or more of the drinking water of an area.

solubility: the amount of mass of a compound that will dissolve in a unit volume of solution.

solute: any substance derived from the atmosphere, vegetation, soil, or rock that is dissolved in water.

soil erosion: the processes by which soil is removed from one place by forces such as wind, water, waves, glaciers, and construction activity and eventually deposited at some new place.

species composition: that portion of an Index of Biotic Integrity that is a metric measuring the number and identity of species.

specific conductance: a measure of the ability of a water to conduct an electrical current. Specific conductance is related to the type and concentration of ions in solution and can be used for approximating the dissolved solids concentration in water. In general, for the San Antonio River basin, conductivity * .6 approximates TDS. People monitoring water quality can measure electrical conductivity quickly in the field and estimate TDS without doing any lab tests at all.

specific heat: the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a kilogram of a substance (water) by 1 degree Celsius.

specific yield: the amount of water a unit volume of saturated permeable rock will yield when drained by gravity.

spillway: the channel or passageway around or over a dam through which excess water is diverted.

spray irrigation: application of finely divided water droplets to crops using artificial means.

spring: an issue of water from the earth; a natural fountain; a source of a body or reservoir of water.

spring melt/thaw: the process whereby warm temperatures melt winter snow and ice. Because various forms of acid deposition may have been stored in the frozen water, the melt can result in abnormally large amounts of acidity entering streams and rivers, sometimes causing fish kills.

standard solution: any solution in which the concentration is known.

stagnation: lack of motion in water that holds pollutants in place.

state revolving funds (SRF): a program, capitalized in part by federal funds, that provides low-interest loans for construction of publicly owned wastewater treatment and water recycling facilities, for implementation of nonpoint source and storm drainage pollution control management programs, and for the development and implementation of estuary conservation and management programs.

static water depth: the vertical distance from the centerline of the pump discharge down to the surface level of the free pool while no water is being drawn from the pool or water table.

static water level: elevation or level of the water table in a well when the pump is not operating; the level or elevation to which water would rise in a tube connected to an artesian aquifer or basin in a conduit under pressure.

steady-state mass balance: the mathematical concept that the sum of upstream pollutant loads, each determined by the product of their concentration times flow, equals a resultant downstream load after mixing.

stockpond: a pond used primarily for watering livestock.

STORET: a national U.S. EPA computerized data base (Storage and Retrieval) containing both surface and groundwater chemistry data.

stormwater discharge: precipitation that does not infiltrate into the ground or evaporate due to impervious land surfaces but instead flows onto adjacent land or water areas and is routed into drain/sewer systems.

stream: a general term for a body of flowing water.

stream piracy: the tendency of one stream to capture the flow of another by eroding a channel that intercepts the other stream’s flow.

stream power: a measure of energy available to move sediment, or any other particle in a stream channel. It is affected by discharge and slope.

stream segment: refers to the surface waters of an approved planning area exhibiting common biological, chemical, hydrological, natural, and physical characteristics and processes. Segments will normally exhibit common reactions to external stress such as discharge or pollutants.

streamflow: the discharge that occurs in a natural channel.

sub-basin: in general, a portion of a river basin.

subcritical flow: flow characterized by low velocity and a Froude number less than 1. When the Froude number is less than 1, gravitational forces are greater than inertial forces.

sublimation: the transition of water directly from the solid state to the gaseous state, without passing through the liquid state; or vice versa.

subsidence: sinking down of part of the earth’s crust due to underground excavation, such as removal groundwater.

subsistence flows: the component of an instream flow regime that represents infrequent, naturally occurring low flow events that occur for a seasonal period of time. They maintain water quality criteria and provide sufficient habitat to ensure organism populations capable of recolonizing the river system once normal, base flows return.

supercritical flow: flow characterized by high velocity and a Froude number greater than 1. When the Froude number is greater than 1, inertial forces are greater than gravitational forces.

supercritical water: a type of thermal treatment using moderate temperatures and high pressures to enhance the ability of water to break down large organic molecules into smaller, less toxic ones. Oxygen injected during this process combines with simple organic compounds to form carbon dioxide and water.

supply: a schedule that shows the various quantities of things offered for sale at various prices at a point in time.

surface impoundment: an indented area in the land’s surface, such a pit, pond, or lagoon.

surface irrigation: application of water by means other than spraying such that contact between the edible portion of any food crop and the irrigation water is prevented.

surface water: water that flows in streams and rivers and in natural lakes, in wetlands, and in reservoirs constructed by humans.

suspended load: specific sediment particles maintained in the water column by turbulence and carried with the flow of water.

suspended solids: the small solid particles in water that cause turbidity. Particles of suspended sediment tend to settle at the channel bottom, but upward currents in turbulent flow counteract gravitational settling.

sustainability: the long-term capacity of an ecosystem to maintain ecological processes and functions, biological diversity, and productivity.

sustainable management: method of exploiting a resource that can be carried on indefinitely. Removal of water from an aquifer in excess of recharge is, in the long term, not a sustainable management method.

sustained overdraft: long term withdrawal from the aquifer of more water than is being recharged.

swamp: a type of wetland dominated by woody vegetation but without appreciable peat deposits. Swamps may be fresh or salt water and tidal or non-tidal.

synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs): man-made organic chemicals. Some SOCs are volatile, while others tend to stay dissolved in water instead of evaporating.

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Water Resource Term T

tail water: the runoff of irrigation water from the lower end of an irrigated field.

tailings pond: An excavated or diked area that is intended to contain liquid and solid wastes from mining and milling operations.

tailrace: The channel that is downstream of the draft tube that carries the water discharged from a turbine. The draft tube is the discharge section of the turbine.

technology-based treatment requirements: NPDES permit requirements based on the application of pollution treatment or control technologies including BTP (best practicable technology), BCT (best conventional technology), BAT (best available technology economically achievable), and NSPS (new source performance standards).

tertiary treatment: removal from wastewater of traces or organic chemicals and dissolved solids that remain after primary treatment and secondary treatment.

thalweg: the line of maximum depth in a stream. The thalweg is the part that has the maximum velocity and causes cutbanks and channel migration.

thermal gradient: temperature difference between two areas.

thermal pollution: an increase in air or water temperature that disturbs the climate or ecology of an area.

thermocline: fairly thin zone in a lake that separates an upper warmer zone (epilimnion) from a lower colder zone (hypolimnion).

threatened species: Under the Federal Endangered Species Act, animal populations may be determined to be either threatened or endangered. Populations listed as threatened are less severely depleted than populations classed as endangered.

threshold pollutant: substance that is harmful to a particular organism only above a certain concentration, or threshold level.

tidal marsh: low, flat marshlands traversed by channels and tidal hollows, subject to tidal inundation; normally, the only vegetation present is salt-tolerant bushes and grasses.

TDS – total dissolved solids: the sum or all inorganic and organic particulate material. TDS is an indicator test used for wastewater analysis and is also a measure of the mineral content of bottled water and groundwater. There is a relationship between TDS and conductivity. In general, for the San Antonio River basin, TDS/.6 approximates conductivity. Or, conductivity * .6 approximates TDS. People monitoring water quality can measure electrical conductivity quickly in the field and estimate TDS without doing any lab tests at all.

Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL): a calculation of the maximum amount of a pollutant that a waterbody can receive and still meet water quality standards, and an allocation of that amount to the pollutant’s sources.

toxaphene: chemical that causes adverse health effects in domestic water supplies and is toxic to fresh water and marine aquatic life.

toxic hot spot: location in enclosed bay, estuary, or any adjacent waters that has toxic pollution problems in the water or sediment in excess of applicable standards.

toxic pollutant: those pollutants or combinations of pollutants, including disease-causing agents, which after discharge and upon exposure, ingestion, inhalation or assimilation into any organism can, on the basis of information available, cause death, disease, behavioral abnormalities, cancer, genetic mutations, physiological malfunctions or physical deformation in such organism or their offspring. The quantities and exposures necessary to cause these effects can vary widely.

Toxicity Reduction Evaluation(TRE): a study conducted to determine the source(s) of toxicity in a discharge effluent so that these sources can be controlled sufficiently to allow a discharger to comply with their permit limits.

toxicity test: the means to determine the toxicity of a chemical or an effluent using living organisms. A toxicity test measures the degree of response of an exposed test organism to a specified chemical or effluent.

Tragedy of the Commons: the idea that no one takes responsibility for things that everybody owns.

transmissivity: refers to the rate at which limestone allows the transmission of water. Limestone can be highly porous, but not very transmissive if the pores are not connected to each other. Technically speaking, it is the rate at which water is transmitted through a unit width of aquifer under unit hydraulic gradient. Transmissivity is directly proportional to aquifer thickness, thus it is high where the Edwards is thick and low where it is thin, given the same hydraulic conductivity.

transpiration: direct transfer of water from the leaves of living plants to the atmosphere.

transport capacity: the capacity of a river to carry sediment in suspension or to move sediment along the riverbed.

treatment: any method, technique, or process designed to remove solids and/or pollutants from solid waste, waste-streams, and effluents.

trickle irrigation: method in which water drips to the soil from perforated tubes or emitters.

trickling filter: a treatment system in which wastewater is trickled over a bed of stones or other material covered with bacteria that break down the organic waste and produce clean water.

tributary: a stream that contributes its water to another stream or body of water.

trihalomethanes (THM): chemical compounds in which three of the four hydrogen atoms of methane (CH4) are replaced by halogen atoms. Widely used in industry as solvents or refrigerants. THMs are also environmental pollutants, and many are considered carcinogenic. THMs are generally by-products of chlorination of drinking water that contains organic material.

trophic composition: that portion of an Index of Biotic Integrity that is a metric measuring the proportion of species and proportions of omnivores, insectivores, and omnivores.

trophic structure: the feeding relationships among species within a food web.

troposphere: the layer of atmosphere closest to the Earth, extending seven to ten miles above the surface, containing most of the clouds and moisture.

tube settler: device using bundles of tubes to let solids in water settle to the bottom for removal by conventional sludge collection means. Sometimes used in sedimentation basins and clarifiers to improve particle removal.

tuberculation: development or formation of small mounds of corrosion products on the inside of iron pipe. These tubercles roughen the inside of the pipe, increasing its resistance to water flow.

turbid: thick or opaque with matter in suspension. Rivers and lakes may become turbid after a rainfall.

turbidimeter: a device that measures the cloudiness of suspended solids in a liquid; a measure of the quantity of suspended solids.

turbidity: a cloudy condition in water due to suspended silt or organic matter.

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Water Resource Term U

USGS: United States Geological Survey

unclassified waters: those waters for which no classification has been assigned and which have not been identified in Appendix A of 31 Texas Administrative Code, Chapter 307.10 of Title 31 (relating to definitions).

unconfined aquifer: an aquifer containing water that is not under pressure; the water level in a well is the same as the water table outside the well.

unconsolidated formations: naturally occurring earth formations that have not been lithified. Alluvium, soil, gravel, clay, and overburden are some of the terms used to describe this type of formation.

undercurrent: a current below the upper currents or surface of a fluid body.

underdrain: a concealed drain with openings through which the water enters when the water table reaches the level of the drain.

underflow: movement of water through subsurface material.

undertow: the current beneath the surface that sets seaward or along the beach when waves are breaking on the shore.

underwater: under the surface of the water; lying, growing, performed, worn, or operating below the surface of the water, as underwater caverns, underwater operation of a submarine.

unsaturated zone: the area above the water table where soil pores are not fully saturated, although some water may be present.

upflow: an upward flow.

urban runoff: storm water from city streets and adjacent domestic or commercial properties that carries pollutants of various kinds into the sewer systems and receiving waters.

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Water Resource Term V

vadose zone: the zone between land surface and the water table where the moisture content is less than saturation (except in the capillary fringe) and pressure is less than atmospheric. Soil pore space also typically contains air or other gases. The capillary fringe is included in the vadose zone.

validation: comparison of computer model results with a set of data that were not used for calibration.

vapor plumes: flue gases that are visible because they contain water droplets.

vegetative controls: non-point source pollution control practices that utilize vegetative cover to reduce erosion and minimize loss of pollutants.

vested water right: the right granted by a state water agency to use either surface or ground water.

virgin flow: the streamflow which exists or would exist if man had not modified the conditions on or along the stream or in the drainage basin.

void: the pore space or other openings in rock. The openings can be very small to cave size and are filled with water below the water table.

volatile organic compounes (VOCs): a group of chemicals that react in the atmosphere with nitrogen oxides, heat and sunlight to form ozone; VOCs are referred to as hydrocarbons.

volatility: the tendency of a liquid to evaporate.

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Water Resource Term W

wasteload allocation: term used in conjunction with the TMDL Program, a WLA is the portion of a receiving water’s loading capacity that is allocated to one of its existing or future point sources of pollution. Discharge limits are usually required for the specific water quality criterion addressed by the TMDL.

wastewater: water containing waste including greywater, blackwater or water contaminated by waste contact, including process-generated and contaminated rainfall runoff.

water: the liquid that descends from the clouds as rain; forms streams, lakes, and seas, and is a major constituent of all living matter. It is an odorless, tasteless, colorless, very slightly compressible liquid.

water availability model: a numerical surface water flow model used to determine the availability of surface water for water right permitting.

water column: an imaginary column extending through a water body from its floor to its surface. Ambient water quality monitoring programs may seek to quantify the water quality of a representative water column. Samples may be taken from a point or points throughout the depth of the water column.

water cycle: natural pathway water follows as it changes between liquid, solid, and gaseous states; biogeochemical cycle that moves and recycles water in various forms through the ecosphere. Also called the hydrologic cycle.

water pollution: degradation of a body of water by a substance or condition to such a degree that the water fails to meet specified standards or cannot be used for a specific purpose.

water purveyor: a public utility, mutual water company, county water district, or municipality that delivers drinking water to customers.

water quality: the chemical, physical, biological, radiological, and thermal condition of water.

water quality-based toxics control: an integrated strategy used in NPDES permitting to assess and control the discharge of toxic pollutants to surface waters. There are two approaches: the whole-effluent approach involves the use of toxicity tests to measure discharge toxicity; the chemical specific approach involves the use of water quality criteria or State standards to limit specific toxic pollutants directly.

water quality criteria: scientifically derived ambient limits developed and updated by EPA, under section 304(a)(1) of the Clean Water Act, for specific pollutants of concern. Criteria are recommended concentrations, levels, or narrative statements that should not be exceeded in a waterbody in order to protect aquatic life or human health.

water quality standards: laws or regulations, promulgated under Section 303 of the Clean Water Act, that consist of the designated use or uses of a waterbody or a segment of a waterbody and the water quality criteria that are necessary to protect the use or uses of that particular waterbody. Water quality standards also contain an antidegradation statement. Every State is required to develop water quality criteria standards applicable to the various waterbodies within the State and revise them every 3 years.

water recycling: the treatment of wastewater making it suitable for reuse.

water solubility: the maximum possible concentration of a chemical compound dissolved in water.

water-soluble substance: a substance that can readily disperse through the environment.

water supplier: one who owns or operates a public water system.

water surface elevation: the elevation of a water surface above or below an established reference level, such as sea level.

water table: level below the earth’s surface at which the ground becomes saturated with water. The surface of an unconfined aquifer which fluctuates due to seasonal precipitation.

water table aquifer: an aquifer confined only by atmospheric pressure (water levels will not rise in the well above the confining bed).

water well: any artificial excavation constructed for the purpose of exploring for or producing ground water.

Water Year: a division based on a general pattern of annual wet and dry periods rather than a calendar year. In Texas, the Water Year is from October 1 through September 30. The Water Year is designated by the calendar year in which it ends. Thus, the year ending September 30, 2009 is called the 2009 Water Year.

waterfall: a sudden, nearly vertical drop in a stream, as it flows over rock.

waterlogging: saturation of soil with irrigation water so the water table rises close to the surface.

watermaster: An employee of a water department who distributes available water supply at the request of water right holders and collects hydrographic data.

watershed: land area from which water drains toward a common watercourse in a natural basin.

watershed approach: a coordinated framework for environmental management that focuses public and private efforts on the highest priority problems within hydrologically defined geographic areas.

watershed management: sater resource protection, enhancement, and restoration. Ideally, watershed management means developing a solution for each watershed that considers all its problems, includes all stakeholders in defining the problems, proposing solutions, and participating in implementing a common solution.

weather: day to day variation in atmospheric conditions.

weir: a wall or plate placed in an open channel to measure the flow of water; a wall or obstruction used to control flow from settling tanks and clarifiers to ensure a uniform flow rate and avoid short-circuiting.

well: a bored, drilled, or driven shaft or a dug hole whose depth is greater than the largest surface dimension and whose purpose is to reach underground water supplies or oil or to store or bury fluids below ground.

wellfield: area containing one or more wells that produce usable amounts of water or oil.

well injection: the subsurface placement of fluids into a well.

well monitoring: measurement by on-site instruments or laboratory methods of well water quality.

well plug: a seal installed in a borehole or well preventing movement of fluids.

wellhead protection area: a protected surface and subsurface zone surrounding a well or well field supplying a public water system to keep contaminants from reaching the well water.

wetland: area that is regularly wet or flooded and has a water table that stands at or above the land surface for at least part of the year, such as a bog, pond, fen, estuary, or marsh.

wettability: the degree to which a fluid will spread into or coat a solid surface in the presence of other fluids into which it will not dissolve.

wettable powder: dry formulation that must be mixed with water or other liquid before it is applied.

whole-effluent toxicity: the aggregate toxic effect of an effluent measured directly by a toxicity test.

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Water Resource Term X

xeriscape: creative landscaping for water and energy efficiency and lower maintenance. The seven xeriscape principles are: good planning and design; practical lawn areas; efficient irrigation; soil improvement; use of mulches; low water demand plants; good maintenance.

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Water Resource Term Y

yield: the quantity of water expressed either as a continuous rate of flow (cubic feet per second, etc.) or as a volume per unit of time. It can be collected for a given use, or uses, from surface or groundwater sources on a watershed.

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Water Resource Term Z

zone of aeration: a region in the Earth above the water table. Water in the zone of aeration is under atmospheric pressure and will not flow into a well.

zone of saturation: the space below the water table in which all the interstices (pore spaces) are filled with water. Water in the zone of saturation is called groundwater.

zooplankton: tiny aquatic animals eaten by fish.

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Water Resource Infographics

Water education – Ground water contamination Infographic

Water education – Ground water contamination

Classroom Infographic presentation for K1-5

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STEM science education for classroom presentation K-5

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Maps Of World – infographic – where the next water crisis will be:

Maps Of World – infographic – where the next water crisis will be

Water & your health – quench your thirst:

Water & your health – Fluoride facts:

Ten things you should know about water:

Watershed-aquifer-city water runoff:

Save our water from marine debris:

Ten facts about bottled water:

Bottle water infograph from internet contributors 10 facts about bottletlle water

Why you should stop drinking bottled water:

Special May 10, 2013 Anniversary Edition: 5,450 water education resource and news article directory – STEM science – education research reference guide for students and teachers.

STW™ anniversary edition: Water education resource and news article directory

Save the Water™ is committed to the education of present and future generations to insure the protection and conservation of water. Without clean drinking water, no species plant, animal or human can be saved. We must insure that the water is not contaminated to the point where we can no longer drink it.

You will find 5,450 links to organizations that provide valuable information about water science, research, education and sanitation. The educational resource is extensive, it has been divided into categories listed below so you can navigate to pertinent information according to your needs. (Click on header or image to navigate). Below the education resource section is a directory to the complete STW™ site for research and teaching purposes. Whether you use these resources for research or education, we hope that you become part of the solution that will bring clean healthy water for all people regardless of their social or economic status.

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Directory to STW™ site – 850 pages of global water news, research and education: Click here.

Directory to STW™ site – 850 pages of global water news, research and education.

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October 2012

Contaminated drinking water: Risk of viral acute gastrointestinal illness from nondisinfected drinking water distribution systems.

Water news: Clean Water Act turns 40.

Water news: India – Pictorial – Chand Baori step well in Rajasthan, India. In a country plagued with a water crisis a wondrous water history lays hidden.

Water news: India – WaterFilters.NET provides aid during global water crisis.

Haritika / STW™ Humanitarian Partnership

Contaminated water: EPA Finalizes cleanup plan for Shenandoah Road Superfund Site in East Fishkill, New York.

Drinking water: Drinking water problem – the case against water fluoridation.

Water crisis: India – Quenching the thirst of a growing nation.

Plant Based Plastics

Water contamination: New Report confirms fracking is reckless.

Contaminated drinking water: VA denies most compensation claims from toxic water wells – Marine veterans left to their own resources.

Contaminated water: Waterkeepers take legal action to stop toxic coal ash from contaminating groundwater.

Water crisis: Africa – Byo water crisis: Churches warn of violent protests – Bulawayo’s taps tightened as water shortage bites.

Contaminated water: EPA changes cleanup plan for polluted ground water at South Plainfield superfund site.

Water crisis: Death of Arizona’s largest lake affects San Carlos Apache Tribe – In depth fact and history report.

Contaminated water: Waukesha’s evolving quest for clean water turns attention to Root River.

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Special May 10, 2013 anniversary water education edition: Top 30 infographics on water and fracking issues illustrated – education resource for STEM science teachers.

Special anniversary edition: Top 30 infographics on water and fracking issues illustrated.

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Groundwater contamination: Classroom infographic presentation for K1-5:

Classroom Infographic presentation for K1-5

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World Water Day 2013 in 15 seconds

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Maps Of World – infographic – where the next water crisis will be:

Maps Of World – infographic – where the next water crisis will be

Water an unequal human right:

The world is thirsty:

Degrees of thirst:

Water health facts:

Water & your health – quench your thirst:

So you want to save water:

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Water & your health – Fluoride facts:

Ten things you should know about water:

World water supply and usage:

Bridging the water gap:

Watershed-aquifer-city water runoff:

Water treatment:

Save our water from marine debris:

TCE water contaminant:

Gulf of Mexico oil spill:

Ten facts about bottled water:

Why you should stop drinking bottled water:

Stop drinking bottled water:

Life of a water bottle:

Bottle water facts:

Bottle water infograph from internet contributors facts about bottled water

Bottle water scam:

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Water Research and Education

Water Education Today will Save Our Water Resourses For The Future

Hydraulic fracturing (fracking) defined with infographics

$fracking defined in infografics, just what is fracking and what are the health risks of fracking and just what chemicals are used in fracking$

Water education today will save our water for the future

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Contaminated drinking water news: Possible bad water has King America Finishing workers drinking from bottles.

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Contaminated drinking water news

drinking water news:

Possible bad water has King America Finishing workers drinking from bottles.

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Save the Water™ / Water Research / Water Education / Global Water News ©2013
By Mary Landers / savannahnow.com

Richard Burkhart/Savannah Morning News James Hayes speaks during a public meeting to gather comments on the proposed Consent Order between EPD and King America Finishing, Inc. Tuesday night at Effingham County High School.

Screven County textile processor King America Finishing revealed last week its employees have been drinking bottled water for about six months.

“The company has been providing bottled water to the employees for some time because it has been in the process of testing its wells and will be drilling new wells, which also require testing,” said attorney Meaghan Goodwin Boyd in an email Thursday. “Until all the wells are tested for drinking water standards, the EPD has recommended bottled water.”

EPD director Jud Turner said the EPD made no such recommendation and that the decision to use bottled water was the company’s alone.

The use of bottled water was reported to EPD in December. The company’s own tests revealed cadmium and phenanthrene above acceptable levels in two groundwater samples at the site, Turner said.

EPD testing last summer of a dozen wells all within two miles of the factory, including 10 wells serving 12 residences downstream, revealed “no problems,” Turner said.

King America Finishing’s soil and ground water sampling was conducted “as part of activities associated with a potential transaction involving the owner of the ste (sic),” according to documents filed with EPD.

Upcoming hearing

King America’s revelation came just days before a scheduled public hearing on a controversial pollution permit for the company’s fire retardant line.

The Georgia Environmental Protection Division will hold a hearing to accept comment on that draft permit at 7 p.m. Tuesday at Effingham County High School. The hearing is one of the last steps in finalizing the pollution permit.

Such hearings, many of them marked by anger and frustration, have become almost routine, with at least eight related ones held over the past 20 months.

At the last hearing in March, also at Effingham High School, about 150 people showed up, most outraged at what they deemed an insufficient and off-target punishment of King America prescribed by a $1 million consent agreement. That document has not been finalized.

The permit being considered Tuesday is about seven years overdue.

In May 2011, the Ogeechee was the site of a fish kill that left 38,000 fish dead; the 70-mile kill zone began just below King America Finishing’s discharge pipe. EPD’s follow-up investigation officially linked the dead fish to a bacterial infection but also revealed the company’s fire retardant processing line had been operating without a pollution permit since its inception in 2006.

The EPD also issued a letter that July informing the company it could restart the line under specified conditions while a permit was being developed.

It was fined $1 million in a consent order that has yet to be finalized.

Last August a discharge permit was issued, but it was revoked about two months later after the Ogeechee Riverkeeper challenged it as incomplete because it lacked a required analysis of whether lowering water quality is necessary to accommodate the economic development the plant supports.

The so-called anti-degradation analysis, commissioned by King America Finishing and released in March, implies that without the fire retardant line the plant would likely move, taking its 575 employees with it. Those employees, the analysis reports, take home a median salary between $25,000 and $30,000, which it characterizes as “well paying.”

Plant shutdown

Many of those employees were not working or getting paid last week.

“The plant is shut down this week for inventory adjustment, and normal operations will resume Monday,” said King America’s attorney and spokesman Lee DeHihns in an email Thursday. “As the company has done each of the last several years, another planned shut down will occur in July.”

The shutdown has nothing to do with the groundwater issue, said EPD spokesman Kevin Chambers.

Some employees may be eligible for unemployment benefits for the lost wages.

“As is standard for any company with hourly employees, not all employees are being paid during this week,” Boyd said. “Those who are working on maintenance and other ongoing matters are being paid; others are taking accrued vacation days; and others are likely eligible for unemployment benefits. When such shutdowns occur, King America makes every effort to minimize the impact on its employees.”

Ogeechee Riverkeeper executive director Emily Markesteyn is urging citizens to attend Tuesday’s hearing.

Among her concerns with the proposed permits are its failure to limit or adequately monitor for the flame retardant chemical THCP and its lax limits on nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous.

“I’m seeing nutrient overloading in the river with both living and dead algae,” she said.

ATTEND THE PERMIT HEARING

EPD will hold a public hearing to solicit comments on the draft wastewater permit for King America Finishing at 7 p.m. Tuesday at Effingham County High School, 1589 Highway 119 South, Springfield.

HOW TO COMMENT

EPD will accept written comments on the draft permit up until the close of business on May 15. Comments may be mailed to the Environmental Protection Division at 4220 International Parkway, Suite 101, Atlanta, GA 30354, Attention: Jane Hendricks, or sent via email to EPDcomments@dnr.state.ga.us, with the words “NPDES permit reissuance King America Finishing (Dover Screven County)” in the subject line.

Copies of the permit fact sheet, draft permit, and antidegradation analysis are available on EPD’s website at www.georgiaepd.org in the What’s New section.

World Water Day 2013 in 15 seconds

15 second world water day 2013 animated story

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Richard Branson – Water crisis – How do we save the water?

WHOLE WORLD Water seeks to prove that economic, social, and environmental progress are not mutually exclusive. Developed to end the global water and sanitation crisis, WHOLE WORLD Water works to engage the hospitality and tourism industry to filter, bottle, and sell its own water, and contribute 10% of the proceeds to the WHOLE WORLD Water Fund. 100% of the proceeds will go directly to clean and safe water initiatives worldwide.
We believe that everyone should have access to clean and safe water. Visit Sir Richard Branson

www.wholeworldwater.co

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Drinking water contamination news: You are a guinea pig – Lead Industries Association – began a six-decade-long campaign to cover-up its product’s dire effects.

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Drinking water contamination

You are a guinea pig.

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By David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz

Instead of leveling with the public, the lead industry through its trade group, the Lead Industries Association, began a six-decade-long campaign to cover-up its product’s dire effects.

A hidden epidemic is poisoning America. The toxins are in the air we breathe and the water we drink, in the walls of our homes and the furniture within them. We can’t escape it in our cars. It’s in cities and suburbs. It afflicts rich and poor, young and old. And there’s a reason why you’ve never read about it in the newspaper or seen a report on the nightly news: it has no name — and no antidote.

The culprit behind this silent killer is lead. And vinyl. And formaldehyde. And asbestos. And Bisphenol A. And polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). And thousands more innovations brought to us by the industries that once promised “better living through chemistry,” but instead produced a toxic stew that has made every American a guinea pig and has turned the United States into one grand unnatural experiment.

Today, we are all unwitting subjects in the largest set of drug trials ever. Without our knowledge or consent, we are testing thousands of suspected toxic chemicals and compounds, as well as new substances whose safety is largely unproven and whose effects on human beings are all but unknown. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) itself has begun monitoring our bodies for 151 potentially dangerous chemicals, detailing the variety of pollutants we store in our bones, muscle, blood, and fat. None of the companies introducing these new chemicals has even bothered to tell us we’re part of their experiment. None of them has asked us to sign consent forms or explained that they have little idea what the long-term side effects of the chemicals they’ve put in our environment — and so our bodies — could be. Nor do they have any clue as to what the synergistic effects of combining so many novel chemicals inside a human body in unknown quantities might produce.

How Industrial Toxins Entered the American Home

The story of how Americans became unwitting test subjects began more than a century ago. The key figure was Alice Hamilton, the “mother” of American occupational medicine, who began documenting the way workers in lead paint pigment factories, battery plants, and lead mines were suffering terrible palsies, tremors, convulsions, and deaths after being exposed to lead dust that floated in the air, coating their workbenches and clothes.

Soon thereafter, children exposed to lead paint and lead dust in their homes were also identified as victims of this deadly neurotoxin. Many went into convulsions and comas after crawling on floors where lead dust from paint had settled, or from touching lead-painted toys, or teething on lead-painted cribs, windowsills, furniture, and woodwork.

Instead of leveling with the public, the lead industry through its trade group, the Lead Industries Association, began a six-decade-long campaign to cover-up its product’s dire effects. It challenged doctors who reported lead-poisoned children to health departments, distracted the public through advertisements that claimed lead was “safe” to use, and fought regulation of the industry by local government, all in the service of profiting from putting a poison in paint, gasoline, plumbing fixtures, and even toys, baseballs, and fishing gear.

As Joe Camel would be for tobacco, so the little Dutch Boy of the National Lead Company became an iconic marketing tool for Dutch Boy Lead Paint, priming Americans to invite a dangerous product into their children’s playrooms, nurseries, and lives. The company also launched a huge advertising campaign that linked lead to health, rather than danger. It even produced coloring books for children, encouraging them to paint their rooms and furniture using lead-based paint.

Only after thousands of children were poisoned and, in the 1960s, activist groups like the Young Lords and the Black Panthers began to use lead poisoning as a symbol of racial and class oppression did public health professionals and the federal government begin to rein in companies like the Sherwin-Williams paint company and the Ethyl Corporation, which produced tetraethyl lead, the lead-additive in gasoline. In 1971, Congress passed the Lead Paint Poisoning Prevention Act that limited lead in paint used for public housing. In 1978, the Consumer Products Safety Commission finallybanned lead in all paints sold for consumer use. During the 1980s, the Environmental Protection Agency issued rules that led to the elimination of leaded gasoline by 1995 (though it still remains in aviation fuel).

The CDC estimates that in at least 4 million households in the U.S. today children are still exposed to dangerous amounts of lead from old paint that produces dust every time a nail is driven into a wall to hang a picture, a new electric socket is installed, or a family renovates its kitchen. It estimates that more than 500,000 children ages one to five have “elevated” levels of lead in their blood. (No level is considered safe for children.) Studies have linked lost IQ points, attention deficit disorders, behavioral problems, dyslexia, and even possibly high incarceration rates to tiny amounts of lead in children’s bodies.

Unfortunately, when it came to the creation of America’s chemical soup, the lead industry was hardly alone. Asbestos is another classic example of an industrial toxin that found its way into people’s homes and bodies. For decades, insulation workers, brake mechanics, construction workers, and a host of others in hundreds of trades fell victim to the disabling and deadly lung diseases of asbestosis or to lung cancer and the fatal cancer called mesothelioma when they breathed in dust produced during the installation of boilers, the insulation of pipes, the fixing of cars that used asbestos brake linings, or the spraying of asbestos on girders. Once again, the industry knew its product’s dangers early and worked assiduously to cover them up.

Despite growing medical knowledge about its effects (and increasing industry attempts to downplay or suppress that knowledge), asbestos was soon introduced to the American home and incorporated into products ranging from insulation for boilers and piping in basements to floor tiles and joint compounds. It was used to make sheetrock walls, roof shingles, ironing boards, oven gloves, and hot plates. Soon an occupational hazard was transformed into a threat to all consumers.

Today, however, these devastating industrial-turned-domestic toxins, which destroyed the health and sometimes took the lives of hundreds of thousands, seem almost quaint when compared to the brew of potential or actual toxins we’re regularly ingesting in the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat.

Of special concern are a variety of chlorinated hydrocarbons, including DDT and other pesticides that were once spread freely nationwide, and despite being banned decades ago, have accumulated in the bones, brains, and fatty tissue of virtually all of us. Their close chemical carcinogenic cousins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), were found in innumerable household and consumer products — like carbonless copy paper, adhesives, paints, and electrical equipment – from the 1950s through the 1970s. We’re still paying the price for that industrial binge today, as these odorless, tasteless compounds have become permanent pollutants in the natural environment and, as a result, in all of us.

The Largest Uncontrolled Experiment in History

While old houses with lead paint and asbestos shingles pose risks, potentially more frightening chemicals are lurking in new construction going on in the latest mini-housing boom across America. Our homes are now increasingly made out of lightweight fibers and reinforced synthetic materials whose effects on human health have never been adequately studied individually, let alone in the combinations we’re all subjected to today.

Formaldehyde, a colorless chemical used in mortuaries as a preservative, can also be found as a fungicide, germicide, and disinfectant in, for example, plywood, particle board, hardwood paneling, and the “medium density fiberboard” commonly used for the fronts of drawers and cabinets or the tops of furniture. As the material ages, it evaporates into the home as a known cancer-producing vapor, which slowly accumulates in our bodies. The National Cancer Institute at the National Institutes of Health suggests that homeowners “purchasing pressed-wood products, including building material, cabinetry, and furniture… should ask about the formaldehyde content of these products.”

What’s inside your new walls might be even more dangerous

What’s inside your new walls might be even more dangerous. While the flame retardants commonly used in sofas, chairs, carpets, love seats, curtains, baby products, and even TVs, sounded like a good idea when widely introduced in the 1970s, they turn out to pose hidden dangers that we’re only now beginning to grasp. Researchers have, for instance, linked one of the most common flame retardants, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, to a wide variety of potentially undesirable health effects including thyroid disruption, memory and learning problems, delayed mental and physical development, lower IQ, and the early onset of puberty.

Other flame retardants like Tris (1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate have been linked to cancer. As the CDC has documented in an ongoing study of the accumulation of hazardous materials in our bodies, flame retardants can now be found in the blood of “nearly all” of us.

Nor are these particular chemicals anomalies. Lurking in the cabinet under the kitchen sink, for instance, are window cleaners and spot removers that contain known or suspected cancer-causing agents. The same can be said of cosmetics in your makeup case or of your plastic water bottle or microwavable food containers. Most recently, Bisphenol A (BPA), the synthetic chemical used in a variety of plastic consumer products, including some baby bottles, epoxy cements, the lining of tuna fish cans, and even credit card receipts, has been singled out as another everyday toxin increasingly found inside all of us.

Recent studies indicate that its effects are as varied as they are distressing. As Sarah Vogel of the Environmental Defense Fund has written, “New research on very-low-dose exposure to BPA suggests an association with adverse health effects, including breast and prostate cancer, obesity, neurobehavioral problems, and reproductive abnormalities.”

Teflon, or perfluorooctanoic acid, the heat-resistant, non-stick coating that has been sold to us as indispensable for pots and pans, is yet another in the list of substances that may be poisoning us, almost unnoticed. In addition to allowing fried eggs to slide right onto our plates, Teflon is in all of us, according to the Science Advisory Board of the Environmental Protection Agency, and “likely to be carcinogenic in humans.”

These synthetic materials are just a few of the thousands now firmly embedded in our lives and our bodies. Most have been deployed in our world and put in our air, water, homes, and fields without being studied at all for potential health risks, nor has much attention been given to how they interact in the environments in which we live, let alone our bodies. The groups that produce these miracle substances — like the petrochemical, plastics, and rubber industries, including major companies like Exxon, Dow, and Monsanto — argue that, until we can definitively prove the chemical products slowly leaching into our bodies are dangerous, we have no “right,” and they have no obligation, to remove them from our homes and workplaces. The idea that they should prove their products safe before exposing the entire population to them seems to be a foreign concept.

In the 1920s, the oil industry made the same argument about lead as an additive in gasoline, even though it was already known that it was a dangerous toxin for workers. Spokesman for companies like General Motors insisted that it was a “gift of God,” irreplaceable and essential for industrial progress and modern living, just as the lead industry argued for decades that lead was “essential” to produce good paint that would protect our homes.

Like the oil, lead, and tobacco industries of the twentieth century, the chemical industry, through the American Chemistry Council and public relations firms like Hill & Knowlton, is fighting tooth and nail to stop regulation and inhibit legislation that would force it to test chemicals before putting them in the environment. In the meantime, Americans remain the human guinea pigs in advanced trials of hundreds if not thousands of commonly used, largely untested chemicals. There can be no doubt that this is the largest uncontrolled experiment in history.

To begin to bring it under control would undoubtedly involve major grassroots efforts to push back against the offending corporations, courageous politicians, billions of dollars, and top-flight researchers. But before any serious steps are likely to be taken, before we even name this epidemic, we need to wake up to its existence.

A toxic dump used to be a superfund site or a nuclear waste disposal site. Increasingly, however, we — each and every one of us — are toxic dumps and for us there’s no superfund around, no disposal plan in sight. In the meantime, we’re walking, talking biohazards and we don’t even know it.

ABOUT David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz

David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz are co-authors and co-editors of seven books and 85 articles on a variety of industrial and occupational hazards, including Deceit and Denial: The Deadly Politics of Industrial Pollution and, most recently, Lead Wars: The Politics of Science and the Fate of America’s Children, (University of California Press/Milbank, 2013). Rosner is a professor of history at Columbia University and co-director of the Center for the History of Public Health at Columbia’s Mailman School of Public Health.Markowitz is a professor of history at John Jay College and the Graduate Center, City University of New York.

This article was published at NationofChange. All rights are reserved.

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Water news: Bottled water – Campaign looks to raise awareness of tap water use – Bye – bye bottles – George School students successfully lobby administration to eliminate sale of bottled water on campus.

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By Hannah Schroer / dailytargum.com

Bottled water often seems like the healthiest way to get hydrated, but members of the University’s Take Back the Tap organization say the opposite is true.

Members talked to students at Voorhees Mall on the College Avenue campus yesterday about the benefits of tap water, said Caroline Lipiec, a School of Arts and Sciences first-year student. The event is a part of “Tap-A-Palooza,” a nationwide competition aiming to get students to pledge not to use bottled water, she said.

College campaigns nationwide are competing to get the most signed petitions, with the winning college getting a bottle refilling station, she said. The campaigns educate more people about the history and importance of the bottled water industry, Lipiec said. “Twenty years ago bottled water didn’t even exist,” she said.

Take Back the Tap’s campaign came to campus three years ago to educate students about water privatization and to remove bottled water from campus, said Kaitlin D’Agostino, campaign coordinator for Take Back the Tap Rutgers. She said businesses should not privatize water because access to water is a human right. Businesses selling bottled water make up to an 80 percent profit.

Poland Spring, a water-bottle manufacturer, arranged a deal with city officials in Poland, Maine, to use the city’s water for profit, she said. D’Agostino, a School of Arts and Sciences junior, said the deal between Poland Spring and the city was unfair because city residents never voted on the arrangement.

The production and distribution of bottled water is not environmentally friendly because it wastes fossil fuels, she said. Bottled water is sold at a high price compared to tap water. Consumers see the product packaging and assume the water is pure, but water-testing standards often show the quality is low, she said.

Lipiec said she wanted to join a club that would help the environment. She became involved after she met the group, which she described as small but passionate, at an involvement fair. “I could tell they really wanted to make a difference,” she said. She watched a documentary called “Tapped” on tap water shortly afterward and was shocked, she said. The film motivated her to continue learning about water issues and to spread the word to others.

Lipiec said she is filming a documentary for the campaign to explain the history of bottled water and to dispel the myth that it is healthier to drink. “Most of the time, it’s just bottled tap water,” she said. Natasha Marchick, a School of Arts and Sciences sophomore, said she bought water by the case from Costco and never thought about the effects of bottled water before attending a Take Back the Tap meeting.

“Tap-A-Palooza” can support the group by teaching students about tap water resources, she said. “I’m not even thinking about it from a competition standpoint,” Marchick said. “I just think it’s great overall that Rutgers is taking a stance.”

Marchick said University students could be more environmentally and socially conscious by using tap water instead of disposable plastic bottles. Shortly after learning about Take Back the Tap, Marchick began carrying a refillable aluminum water bottle around campus. “At the end of the day, it’s a lot more economical,” she said. “It’s more like an investment.”

Although many people know about water shortages, they do not think the problem personally affects them, Lipiec said. She said she often sees University students using disposable water bottles, especially during hot weather. Tap water has to meet both national and state standards for wastewater treatment by the Environmental Protection Agency, but the Food and Drug Administration, which has looser standards, regulates bottle water.

“New Jersey actually has great quality standards,” D’Agostino said. Student interns at Food & Water Watch in New Brunswick started the campaign to promote the use of hydration stations — water fountains with bottle refill attachments — around campus. After some time, they received grants to install the first stations.

The group also aims to make on-campus events more environmentally friendly by using pitchers of water. “New Brunswick … has some of the best water in New Jersey,” she said. “That’s something to be really proud of.” D’Agostino is on the national advisory board for Take Back the Tap. She is 1 of 3 coordinators who mentor other campaigns around the country, talking with members about their progress.

The “Tap-A-Palooza” contest is part of a month of water awareness to teach people the issues surrounding bottled water and the benefits of tap water, she said. “People should have water available,” she said. “There should be no question about it.”

Big changes are afoot at George School, where the sale and distribution of bottled water will cease at the beginning of the 2013-2014 academic year.

Terra, George School’s chapter of the Sierra Student Coalition—a broad network of high school and college-aged youth from across the country who work to protect the environment—has successfully passed an initiative to improve the quality and availability of on-campus water fountains and to ban the sale and distribution of bottled water by the beginning of fall 2013.

The idea was first proposed in fall 2011 by Mike Gersie, faculty sponsor of Terra and director of operations, as a way to increase sustainability on campus. “The amount of water bottle trash I was seeing was disconcerting,” said Mike. “Many colleges were jumping on the idea and I thought, ‘Gee, that would be a great thing for Terra.’ I suggested it to them and they really sunk their teeth into it.”

“I was born and raised in Los Angeles, and my whole life I grew up seeing pollution and watching the environment be senselessly damaged,” said Justin Becker ’13, a co-leader of Terra. “I decided it was enough. I had a vision of a better planet. When the idea of removing plastic water bottles was shared with me, I just got excited and I was thrilled with the chance to do something that would not only better the George School community, but the world at large.”

After a significant amount of research, the proposal was brought before several campus committees and organizations to garner support. The science department, athletic department, outdoor club, administrative staff group, student council, environmental stewardship oversight committee, and Head of School Nancy Starmer all saw the proposal and offered feedback before it was brought in front of the George School Committee (GSC) in fall 2012.

“Each presentation was another step towards our goal,” said Autumn Atkinson ’13, co-leader of Terra. “After getting the okay from the GSC, we had the approval we needed to move forward.” The first new water fountain was installed on campus this winter—a Halsey Taylor HydroBoost bottle filling station and filtered water cooler that delivers chilled drinking water at a rate of one and a half gallons per minute. In just a few short months, it has already helped eliminate waste from more than 637 disposable plastic bottles by encouraging students to use refillable water bottles.

The next water fountain is scheduled to be installed later this spring in Alumni Gym and over the course of the summer, eight more water fountains and filling stations will be installed across campus. At the start of the 2013-2014 academic year, bottled water will no longer be for sale in the bookstore, Bettye’s Place, or in vending machines. Though total elimination of water bottles won’t happen immediately, the first steps have been taken.

“We plan to work with the athletic department to make sure that teams are properly hydrated for games which will include the ability to specially request bottled water,” said Stephanie Weinstein ’13, the third Terra co-leader. “Everything is about compromise or else no change can be made. What is important is that in every aspect of the school, the wheel of change is beginning to turn and the outlook of conservation and sustainability is being incorporated.”

“I would like to see other Friends schools follow our lead to become bottled water free,” said Autumn. “It could start a chain that would encourage good behavior [as it relates to sustainability] from young people.”

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Water contamination news: DEC to probe Whitesboro site for contamination – USGS – Chlorinated solvents contamination resource material.

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P Phillip A. Vanno / Observer-Dispatch / Apr 01, 2013

WHITESBORO —

The state Department of Environmental Conservation will be investigating the site of a former village dry cleaners and testing for soil and ground water contamination.

DEC investigators will be boring holes to test the soil and ground water for chlorinated solvents that are believed to have seeped into the ground when the Whitesboro Dry Cleaners operated on Oriskany Boulevard more than 20 years ago. Indoor air quality also will be analyzed due to vapors that could be released from the soil.

According to the DEC, the dry cleaners shut down in the early 1990s, and substantial renovations have taken place to the one-story commercial building, which has housed a restaurant and real estate office in the past.

It currently is home to Grooming by Michele Lee at 134 Oriskany Blvd. and Edwards Jones financial planning at 130 Oriskany Blvd. A vacant space also is in the building.

DEC spokesman Stephen Litwhiler did not know when the investigation would begin, but he did say that neither the business tenants nor the family living in the residential dwelling directly behind the commercial property facing Owens Place would need to vacate the premises during the process.

Litwhiler said the chemicals were first detected after a gas spill at a former Chevron station that was located nearby.

“The things that turned up in the soil were not consistent with what you would find in a gas spill,” Litwhiler said. “These chlorinated solvents weren’t even a known problem until about 15 years ago. There are thousands of sites around the state like this.”

A limited site characterization was concluded in January 2010, which resulted in the site being labeled a Class 2 inactive hazardous waste site. Several off-site residences and businesses have been sampled for sub-slab soil vapors and indoor air quality in 2011 and 2013 as well.

The investigation is being paid for by the state Superfund.

Chlorinated solvents contamination

Chlorinated solvents have properties that make them useful for degreasing fats, oils, waxes, and resins. They are used widely and have been manufactured in large quantities. Some chlorinated solvents are dichloromethane, tetrachloroethene, trichloroethane, and tricholoroethene. The U.S. production of these compounds in 1980 were 255,000, 347,000, 314,000, and 121,000 metric tons, respectively.

Chlorinated solvents in general are harmful to human and ecological health. They can cause or are suspected of causing cancer, and are toxic or harmful to aquatic organisms.

Spills and leaks of chlorinated solvents have caused widespread subsurface contamination in the environment. Commonly these contaminants are present in the subsurface in the form of non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPL, the bulk chemical product), as dissolved contaminants in ground water, associated with aquifer sediments, and as vapors in the unsaturated zone. Because the density of these NAPL’s is greater than water, they tend to sink in ground water systems, which results in a complex dispersal and plume patterns, long-term sources in the subsurface, and difficult clean-up. Under the proper conditions, biodegradation and volatilization can contribute significantly to the removal of chlorinated solvents from the subsurface, making natural attenuation a potentially important remediation alternative.

The project activities undertaken fall into 2 general categories: Plume-scale research at representative contamination sites, and research on microbial degradation pathways for chlorinated solvents. More information is provided on these activities as follows:

Plume-Scale Research at Representative Contamination Sites

Chlorinated Solvents in Fractured Sedimentary Rock — Naval Air Warfare Center (NAWC) Research Site, West Trenton, New Jersey

Field Investigation of Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvents — Picatinny Arsenal, New Jersey

Microbial Degradation Pathways for Chlorinated Solvents

Microbial Degradation of Chloroethenes in Ground Water Systems

Application of Molecular Methods in Microbial Ecology to Understand the Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvents

Program Headlines Related to Chlorinated Solvents Contamination

Fact Sheets

Bioremediation–Nature’s Way to a Cleaner Environment: USGS Fact Sheet FS-O54-95
Contaminant Sorption by Soil and Bed Sediment is there a Difference?: USGS Fact Sheet FS-087-00

New Publications

Upcoming Publications

Microbial degradation of chloroethenes in the fractured rock aquifer at NAWC Trenton under unamended and enhanced conditions: Bradley, P.M., U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report.
Microbial mineralization of cis-dichloroethene and vinyl chloride as a component of natural attenuation of chloroethene contaminants under conditions identified in the field as anoxic: Bradley, P.M., U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report.
Effects of thermal heating on aquifer microorganisms: Chapelle, F.H., Lacombe, P.J., and Bradley, P.M., Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP).

Newly Published

Threshold amounts of organic carbon needed to initiate reductive dechlorination in groundwater systems: Chapelle, F.H., Thomas, L.K., Bradley, P.M., Rectanus, H.V., and Widdowson, M.A., 2012, Remediation Journal, v. 22, no. 3, p. 19-28, doi:10.1002/rem.21318.
Perils of categorical thinking: “Oxic/anoxic” conceptual model in environmental remediation: Bradley, P.M., 2012, Remediation Journal, v. 22, no. 3, p. 9-18, doi:10.1002/rem.21317.
Dissolved oxygen as an indicator of bioavailable dissolved organic carbon in groundwater: Chapelle, F.H., Bradley, P.M., McMahon, P.B., Kaiser, K., and Benner, R., 2012, Ground Water, v. 50, no. 2, p. 230-241, doi:10.1111/j.1745-6584.2011.00835.x.

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Water contamination news: Dangerous water – Well contamination ‘a statewide problem’ – More contaminant found: low level of TCE detected at Dartmouth College housing.

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Kate King /stamfordadvocate
The Westport-Weston health department will hold a public meeting with state health officials on well water contamination at 7 p.m. Thursday, April 11 at the Weston Public Library.

WESTON — Jessica Penna and Elle Wilson spent three years undergoing a battery of medical tests, searching for answers they now believe were floating in their well water all along.

The Weston mothers suffered similar symptoms: hair loss, stomach and joint pain, body numbness and skin rashes. After shelling out thousands of dollars on blood tests, CAT scans, skin biopsies, ultrasounds and even a brain scan, they decided to test their well water.

It turned out arsenic, in levels more than twice the federal Environmental Protection Agency’s recommended health limit of 0.01 milligrams per liter, had been flowing from the two women’s taps — and they’re not alone. The Connecticut Department of Public Health has received numerous reports in recent years of pesticide and heavy metal contamination in residential drinking water across the state. But the state has done little research on the source or location of well water contaminants such as arsenic, and requires the testing of private drinking water only once — when a new well is installed.

“I have been sick for three years; I’ve been searching for answers,” said Penna, a Stamford native. “Most people associate well water with natural springs. It’s the best water, it’s so clean. It’s so healthy. You think that you’re fine.”

`A statewide problem’

Penna and Wilson’s test results convinced them their health problems are linked to years of drinking and bathing in arsenic-laced water.

“To finally have an answer that was in my well water all along — I never thought that all my symptoms were connected to the same thing,” Penna said. “I just thought I was falling apart.”

Penna and Wilson live in the same wooded neighborhood of rural Weston, where the majority of the town’s 10,000 residents use private well water. The Weston Field Club, about four miles away, also recently tested positive for elevated arsenic levels, said General Manager Jeff Champion.

Weston residents rushed to test their own well water after hearing of Penna and Wilson’s findings, and 104 homeowners have reported their results to the Westport-Weston Health Department, Director Mark Cooper said. About 30 percent of the wells tested positive for arsenic in levels above the acceptable health limit.

Arsenic contamination is not confined to Weston’s borders. Stamford’s health department detected arsenic in 24 of 227 well water tests performed since 2010. The state DPH has also found the heavy metal in drinking wells across Connecticut, most recently in Pomfret and Somers, said state epidemiologist Brian Toal.

“We’ve seen enough of it and it’s been in enough different places that we do think — it’s an isolated, it’s a sporadic problem — but it is a statewide problem,” Toal said.

The state has not investigated the scope or severity of arsenic contamination, however, even though the heavy metal has been linked to serious health problems. There are an estimated 400,000 private wells in Connecticut serving approximately 526,700 people, but it’s not known how prevalent arsenic is in residential well water.

“We don’t have a statewide database and we have not done a statewide survey,” Toal said. “The testing that occurs is usually just citizen-initiated.”

Skin, stomach, immune and neurological problems are common symptoms of arsenic exposure. These health issues are usually associated with very high levels of arsenic contamination and hair loss is not a common side effect, Toal said. The main health concern stemming from long-term arsenic exposure is an elevated risk of lung, bladder or skin cancer.

The state public health department recommends homeowners with high levels of arsenic in their well water stop drinking from the tap until they’ve installed remediation systems on their homes. Metal oxide filters or reverse osmosis procedures are typically used to treat arsenic contamination, but homeowners should consult a water service professional to determine which method would work best for their house, Toal said.

Searching for answers

Wilson’s family has lived in their 19th-century farmhouse for three years. They stopped drinking the water about a year ago, after several family members began experiencing stomach pain.

A water sample taken from Wilson’s kitchen and analyzed by Aqua Environmental Laboratory in Newtown contained 0.021 milligrams of arsenic per liter, which is twice the recommended health limit. Wilson then sent samples of her family’s hair out for analysis — her five-year-old daughter’s hair tested positive for high arsenic levels, she said.

“It’s one thing if you know as an adult that you could possibly get cancer or be sick,” Wilson said. “But for your children to possibly get cancer is what I’m not sleeping over.”

Health officials believe arsenic enters private well water from the surrounding bedrock. State Geologist Margaret Thomas said naturally-occurring arsenic is found in rocks that contain iron sulfites, which are prevalent in New England.

“It’s actually a quite beautiful mineral to see, it’s sparkly and silver, but that is one of the primary carriers of arsenic in the bedrock,” Thomas said.

The state has not studied the location or extent of arsenic-containing bedrock, although it would be possible to do a geographic analysis based on geologic mapping, Thomas said. Arsenic was also historically used as a pesticide, mainly in apple orchards.

“The issue with arsenic is always that lingering question of whether or not it has to do with historic pesticide application or whether it’s naturally occurring in the rock,” Thomas said. “It is worth investigating, but regardless of the source it’s still not a constituent you would want to be drinking.”

Penna, a mother of three young children whose home was built in the 1960s, moved to Weston eight years ago. Her once-thick hair has since fallen out in clumps — she was able to fill a plastic sandwich bag with brown strands collected from the drain after one shower. She decided to test her well water after other Weston mothers reported similar hair loss.

“I think the hair was the first thing that linked us all together because it was such a traumatizing thing,” Penna said. “Then as we started talking together and comparing our symptoms; we were just checking all the same things off the list.”

The water contained arsenic

The water sampled from Penna’s kitchen sink and analyzed by Aqua Environmental contained arsenic in amounts equal to 0.022 milligrams per liter, more than twice the acceptable health limit. Another raw water test performed a month later by Stratford-based Complete Environmental Testing Inc. found similar arsenic levels — 0.024 milligrams per liter.

Penna installed a water filtration system, but wanted to know if the metal was present in her body after years of drinking her well water. She consulted several doctors and toxicologists but had a hard time finding someone who could test her for arsenic poisoning.

“I spoke to six different toxicologists across the state,” Penna said. “It was mind-boggling to me that the medical treatment and research wasn’t there to help me.”

She eventually visited a Westport natural pathologist, who sent a sample of her hair to a Georgia laboratory for analysis. The results revealed high arsenic levels, with her hair sample testing positive for 1.16 micrograms per gram — well above the recommended limit of 0.15 micrograms per gram.

“This might sound strange but when I read it I was jumping for joy at the fact that it said I have arsenic poisoning,” Penna said. “This has been a mystery for me for three years … now I know what the problem is and I can move forward to treat it.”

A fact sheet published on the state health department’s website said urine and hair arsenic tests are “difficult to interpret and, according to the American Medical Association, are unreliable.” The best way to investigate arsenic exposure is to test drinking water, according to the publication.

Spreading the word

But homeowners won’t know to test their wells for arsenic if public health officials don’t alert them, Penna and Wilson said. The state DPH does not require private well owners to test their water for arsenic and other known toxins, such as pesticides, copper and radon. The department didn’t even recommend statewide arsenic testing until last week, when it issued a news release recommending all homeowners test their well water every five years for arsenic and uranium.

“If levels are found to be higher than state or federal criteria, homeowners have a number of effective treatment options to lower levels of the metals to less concerning levels,” Toal wrote in the March 18 release. “The cost for testing for both metals can range between $65-$100.”

Penna said she doubts homeowners will really be aware of the issue unless the state requires periodic testing.

“If I hadn’t gotten sick and done the research and learned to test for these contaminants I never would have known that they exist,” Penna said. “Unless the state made private well owners aware of the contaminants — aware of what can be in their well and let them know to test for it — no one would know to test for it.”

The state requires tests of private drinking water only once — when the well is installed — and arsenic is not on the list of contaminants laboratories are mandated to test for under the state Public Health Code. The code requires new wells to be tested for total coliform, nitrate, nitrite, sodium, chloride, iron, manganese, hardness, turbidity, pH, sulfate, apparent color and odor.

Requiring homeowners to test their wells more frequently or changing the health code to encompass a wider range of contaminants would require legislative approval.

“That would be a long process and something we can think about, but that’s not something we could do unilaterally,” Toal said.

The General Assembly’s Environmental Committee chairman said he is open to exploring the issue. State Sen. Ed Meyer, D-Guilford, said he would support expanding the list of contaminants that laboratories are required to test for when new wells are installed. Mandating more frequent testing of private drinking water would be a tougher bill to pass, however.

“There would be some controversy about expanding the (frequency of) testing on the grounds that there’s an expense involved and that’s sort of a private right because it’s a private source of water,” Meyer said. “But I can’t see any controversy with respect to expanding the list of contaminants.”

State health officials are looking to boost the public’s awareness of arsenic contamination, Toal said. Earlier this year the public health department updated its fact sheet, “Arsenic in Private Drinking Water Wells,” which it sent to local health officials and posted online.

“Hopefully we’ll get out and do some publicity in the near future,” Toal said. “We changed the fact sheet a month ago and we’re stepping up our efforts.”

Penna and Wilson said they think health officials should be doing more.

“I just have a feeling nobody knows about this,” Wilson said. “You buy a house, you’re excited about the house. You don’t even think about the water. I would never know to test for arsenic — never in a million years.”

Mark Cooper, the health director for Weston and Westport, said the department recommends private homeowners test their wells every year. He is creating a map with the test results homeowners have reported, which will be made public, and plans to hold a joint meeting with state health officials on arsenic contamination next month.

“The private testing, it’s blown me away by how many people have gone out and done it by themselves and have been willing to share the results,” Cooper said. “It’s been wonderful. We now have more test results than we know what to do with.”

Weston First Selectwoman Gayle Weinstein, a Democrat, warned the town will not be footing the bill for private well water testing or filtration systems.

“It is the homeowner’s responsibility to test the well water and then remediate it,” she said.

Penna and Wilson said they don’t expect the government to pay for their well water testing or hook their homes up to city water — they just want more public education about water contamination.

“We’re taking care of ourselves,” Penna said. “I think for both of us it was just important to reach out to the rest of the community and let them know that this is a problem. We just didn’t want anyone else getting sick.”

Penna is using Facebook to urge other Weston mothers to test their well water. Some residents have responded with fear that a contamination finding could hurt their property values, she said.

“I think that our health should come first and I don’t think it should affect property values because it’s a problem that can be fixed so long as you know it exists,” Penna said. “My fight is to let other families and all the towns that have well water — not just Weston — become aware of these contaminants that are in their wells.”

Fear factor

Assuaging property value fears and changing the way local and state health officials approach water contamination will not happen overnight, said Stamford resident Karen DeFalco.

DeFalco, president of the North Stamford Concerned Citizens for the Environment nonprofit, was an early advocate for municipal and state intervention in 2009 after the carcinogenic pesticides chlordane and dieldrin were discovered in North Stamford drinking wells. Stamford’s public testing program, which has tested more than 1,000 of the city’s estimated 5,000 private drinking wells over the last year, has helped local and state officials learn more about pesticide contamination and inspired other testing across Connecticut.

“When we started the fear was insurmountable; it was huge,” DeFalco said. “People didn’t know what to do with it. They were fearful. The city wasn’t giving any answers; the state wasn’t giving any answers. But now as we have started to keep the dialogue going, all of the sudden the fear factor has subsided.”

In the meantime, Penna said she plans to test her water quarterly. There’s a whole list of other contaminants Penna has yet to check her well for. Her sister, who lives in Newtown, has already tested her home’s water and discovered her radon levels are 18,000 picocuries per liter — more than three times the state-recommended limit of 5,000 picocuries per liter.

“I personally think there’s probably more than just arsenic in our water,” Penna said. “But until I have money to test … I won’t know what’s in it.”

Kate.King@scni.com; 203-964-2263; http://twitter.com/kcarliniking

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More contaminant found: low level of TCE detected at Dartmouth College housing.

By Sarah Brubeck / Valley News Staff Writer /

Hanover — A chemical compound known to cause cancer has been detected in a vacant home owned by Dartmouth College adjacent to the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory.

Dartmouth College conducted its own test on three residences near the lab in the Fletcher-Cedar neighborhood after elevated levels of trichloroethylene, or TCE, were found on the boundary of the CRREL campus earlier this year.

Results from one of the houses came back on Thursday night and showed the presence of air-borne TCE in amounts close to or exceeding the “regulatory screening levels,” college spokesman Justin Anderson said yesterday.

Dartmouth notified residents in 32 college-owned units of the findings yesterday afternoon via email and hand-delivered letters. Anderson stressed that the college doesn’t think there is any immediate health danger to residents.

“We are taking this seriously and we are acting out of an abundance of caution because we want to make sure that our residents are taken care of and their concerns are addressed,” Anderson said.

The college is still waiting for the results

The college is still waiting for the results for the other two houses, he said.

TCE was used at CRREL from 1960 to 1987 as a refrigerant. Exposure to the chemical can damage the central nervous system and immune system and can even cause cancer.

A screening level is a stricter standard than what would trigger a clean-up. A screening level is meant to protect the most vulnerable individuals, including a fetus in utero, Anderson said.

For example, a screening level for TCE is 0.4 parts per billion, or ppb, while a level five times higher, 2 parts per billion, is needed before it’s considered a serious health risk, Anderson said. What was found in the Fletcher-Cedar house was closer to the screening level.

The testing done at the Fletcher-Cedar residence was similar to the testing that was done at Richmond Middle School last week. Earlier this week, administrators at the middle school sent home a note to parents explaining that a preliminary test conducted by a private company showed TCE present in the principal’s office.

The level was so low that it is unclear if the chemical migrated from CRREL or some other source. (In addition to refrigeration, TCE also has been used in dry cleaning and as an industrial degreaser.)

The Army Corps of Engineers will conduct its own tests in the coming months at several locations, including the middle school, the Fletcher-Cedar residences, Dartmouth Printing Co., investment advisors Brendel and Fisher, Hanover Family Chiropractic and Hanover Yoga and the Rivercrest property north of CRREL.

Longstanding Contamination

Officials at CRREL have known there was TCE contamination in the soil and ground water underneath the lab for decades.

In 2010, however, investigators detected TCE vapor inside several buildings on the CRREL campus. Since that discovery, an effort has been made to monitor for TCE vapor throughout the campus. The Department of Defense came out with vapor intrusion guidance.

“Nobody was thinking vapors at the time,” said Lawrence Cain, risk assessor with the Army Corp of Engineers New England district. “It just wasn’t what you did. You looked at ground water, soil, sediments, that kind of thing. They knew they had a groundwater problem, and now on top of that is the vapor problem.”

Dartmouth College plans to hire a contractor to design and install sub-slab depressurization systems at its Fletcher-Cedar housing — similar to what are used at CRREL — that are supposed to be an effective means of keeping TCE from building up indoors.

Dartmouth has also offered temporary relocation for residents upon request. There will also be several information sessions, Anderson said.

The Valley News knocked on the doors of more than a dozen Fletcher-Cedar residences yesterday afternoon before the email was sent out notifying them of the testing results.

One person who declined to give his full name — a resident in one of the houses that was tested in the Fletcher-Cedar neighborhood — said he felt assured that the tests were an “over-precaution.”

He said he felt that the fact that CRREL hosts a day care center on site shows that there’s no reason to worry; if there were harmful levels of chemicals, he surmised, the day care would not be allowed.

“I’m not concerned,” he said.

Residents in two other houses also declined to comment.

Another person who declined to be identified — a resident in the Fletcher-Cedar neighborhood whose house is close to the three that were tested — also expressed confidence that everything was being handled properly, and had so far decided against requesting a test on her property.

“It’s nice that they’re on top of it. … Maybe ignorance is bliss … but we’re going to trust them, naïvely perhaps,” the person said. She felt Dartmouth is run by intelligent people who want healthy employees, she added.

‘They Aren’t Scary High Levels’

About three years ago, several offices throughout the CRREL campus were tested for TCE vapor contamination, and a number of samples came back positive.

A TCE storage tank was once located underground on the northeast side of the CRREL campus, and the highest levels of vapor were found in the basement levels closest to where the storage tank had been, Cain said in an interview earlier this week.

Mitigation efforts, including portable air purifiers and sub-slab depressurization systems that help contain the contamination, have been made, said Darrell Moore, a project manager for the Army Corps of Engineers New England district.

There are still areas in the basement area of the labs where no offices are allowed, and it should stay that way, Cain said.

“When we say high levels, they aren’t scary high levels, but they’re higher levels than we’d be comfortable to have somebody work,” Moore said in an interview at Richmond Middle School earlier this week.

Eventually, the testing led Moore and his colleagues to the property boundary of CRREL. When testing at the boundary began a year ago, TCE traces were not detected in shallow samples at 25 feet, but as Moore and his team drilled deeper, they found elevated levels of TCE in the soil vapor 50 to 75 feet below the ground.

The discovery has led members of the Army Corps of Engineers to expand their testing off the CRREL campus to neighboring buildings . CRREL’s location on Route 10 in Hanover is across the street from Richmond Middle School. The campus is surrounded by office buildings and housing for Dartmouth College staff and is just down the road from Kendal at Hanover, a retirement community.

Now, Army Corps of Engineers will be conducting its own multi-part tests.

After students and teachers had left Richmond Middle School last Tuesday, members of the Army Corps of Engineers peeled back pieces of the carpet and drilled holes through the cement to insert 12-inch tubes, which are about a half inch in diameter, into the ground. Those tubes will allow investigators to test for TCE in air pockets, or vapor, in the soil.

At the same time, the ambient air will be tested for TCE. The soil and air testing are done simultaneously because the vapor travels through the soil and then enters buildings. If the chemical compound is found in the air, but not in the soil, then the TCE may be from another source.

Moore and his colleagues also will drill outside the school and look for pathways that the TCE vapor might have traveled. The first drilling outside the school will take place during the third week of April, Moore said.

Testing will likely continue for months because Moore said it’s essential to conduct various rounds of sampling. Eight rounds of vapor sampling were conducted on the CRREL campus during the last three years, Moore said.

Superintendent Frank Bass said he’s going to give Moore as much freedom as he needs to test in and around the middle school because he doesn’t want Moore to miss anything.

“God forbid we miss a spot and it happens to be a spot that the chemical made its way too. We just can’t take that chance,” Bass said.

An open house to address TCE contamination will be held at the Richmond Middle School gym at 7 p.m. Tuesday. The evening will be set up like a science fair, with eight different booths where community members can learn about how vapor moves through soil, the health risks of TCE, the history of the chemical compound at CRREL, among other things.

Parents Take News in Stride

Outside the school yesterday afternoon, parents waiting to pick up their children expressed reactions ranging from concern about the tests’ potential findings to calm confidence that there was no need to worry.

When parent Christine Abbatiello first read the memo sent home with her two children who are students at the school, “my reaction was pretty guarded because I really didn’t know that much about it,” she said. But after researching TCE online and learning more about the steps that CRREL and the school are taking, “I felt better about it,” she said, because there “didn’t seem to be any kind of threat.”

She and her husband plan on attending the open house “just to get the lay of the land.”

“Obviously the proximity (between CRREL and the middle school) is pretty close … so we want to make sure they’re staying on top of it, which we’re assured they will,” she said.

It was still at the front of parent Erin Roy’s mind, who said she found the situation to be “very concerning” until further testing is completed, and said she hoped the school isn’t “minimizing” the problem.

“My trust is in the leadership here,” she said. “I hope and pray that if they felt it was that lethal an amount that they would not allow kids to go to school here.”

She’s eager for more information, particularly whether parents should be keeping an eye out for any symptoms of long-term TCE exposure.

Parent Joachim Ankerhold, a visiting professor at Dartmouth College this semester whose son is enrolled at the middle school, said it was an interesting experience to watch the school deal with the situation. So far, he said, it seemed that officials had responded appropriately.

“Of course, transparency is the best thing you can do,” said Ankerhold, who is visiting from Germany.

Extent of Contamination Unknown

This is the first time that investigators have thought that TCE vapor might have seeped from CRREL, but it is not the first time that CRREL has worried about contamination on its property.

The chemical compound was used as a refrigerant for the cooling system of CRREL’s main laboratory from 1960 to 1987.

In May 1970, a blown gasket caused the refrigeration system to be shut down. About 6,000 gallons of TCE were siphoned into a storage tank, but many gallons went through the floor drains, which connected to the sewer system.

Two months later, an explosion to the tank caused about 3,000 gallons to drain into the parking lot and was later washed into the storm sewer by the fire department.

Throughout the years, TCE also leaked on the floors, but because TCE wasn’t considered hazardous at the time, no documentation of leaks were kept, according to records found in CRREL’s administrative report at the Kilton Library.

“Unfortunately, it is impossible to estimate how much TCE was lost during the years it was used at CRREL,” the report reads.

Sarah Brubeck can be reached at sbrubeck@vnews.com or 603-727-3223. Valley News staff writer Maggie Cassidy contributed to this report.

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Drinking water news: Fluoride – Fluoride question deserves careful consideration.

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Dan Merfeld
Wicked Local Concord
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Water Education
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educational material only.

Drinking water news: Fluoride

Two recent Lincoln Journal commentaries discuss fluoridation. In my opinion, we must keep open minds while considering the most recent data. Also note that this vote at town meeting cannot end water fluoridation; an affirmative vote only starts a process whereby we consider whether fluoridation’s benefits outweigh its risks. I highlight three factors.

Fluoride question deserves careful consideration.

Dan Merfeld / Wicked Local Concord /Lincoln

#1) Fluoridating water appears neither necessary nor effective. The Oral Health Division of the Center of Disease Control (CDC) acknowledges that fluoride’s benefit comes from topical contact. Brushing your teeth with a toothpaste containing fluoride is the most common topical application. Swallowing fluoride provides no known benefits. An article in the Journal of the American Dental Association (ADA) indicates no known benefit before the teeth emerge, when topical contact with fluoride becomes possible. So why do some think that fluoridation is effective? The answer appears straightforward – cavity rates decreased and dental health improved after fluoridation began. But better dental care has improved dental health and reduced the number of cavities everywhere, even in communities without fluoride. In fact, research shows no significant difference in the number of cavities for US communities with and without fluoride in the drinking water. As another example, the vast majority of West European countries do not fluoridate; yet the dental health of Western Europe is no worse than for US communities that fluoridate.

#2) Fluoridating water does not appear to be safe. It is accepted that fluoridation causes severe problems for some individuals. Kidney patients are told to avoid fluoride, and the CDC recommends that bottled water with less fluoride be used when mixing infant formula. Furthermore, fluoride is known to cause dental fluorosis (a developmental disruption of dental enamel that yields tooth discoloration) in millions of children, including children in Lincoln. Finally, while not yet conclusive, there is a growing body of peer-reviewed research, including a very recent publication by colleagues at the Harvard School of Public Health, that links higher levels of fluoride in children’s drinking water with reduced IQ.

#3: Fluoridating water provides uncontrolled drug delivery. If you want to ingest fluoride, you can get fluoride tablets from your pharmacy, but you will need a prescription. Fluoride is not an essential nutrient. It is a medication that the Food & Drug Administration (FDA) regulates as a drug. If you read the fluoride tablet page in the online Physicians’ Desktop Reference for Consumers, it notes, “This drug has not been found by FDA to be safe and effective”. Yet fluoride is mass distributed via water. When water is fluoridated, the dose is uncontrolled as the amount ingested varies with water intake. Can you imagine your health care professional telling you to just put your prescription drugs in your water, ingest the drugged water when you are thirsty, and go ahead and share your drugged water with others? Of course not! In fact, most European countries do not fluoridate their water, because such mass medication is considered ineffective and unethical.

After considering a great deal of evidence, the benefits of fluoridation do not seem to justify the risks. This is my personal decision. If you decide fluoride is right for your family, I suggest that you consider a topical application by using toothpaste with fluoride. You can even choose to swallow toothpaste, but due to the fluoride content that is not recommended. Given this, does it make sense to swallow water with fluoride? Nonetheless, if you decide that ingesting fluoride is right for you, I respect your decision. Each of us regularly makes personal health decisions, often in consultation with health-care providers, without impacting others. This provides an ethical approach for fluoride as well. Why force fluoride on anyone, especially those who are sensitive to its side effects?

Lincoln was the only town in Massachusetts that fought three fluoridation orders before finally approving fluoridation in 1971. Across the US and world, opposition to fluoridation is growing. About 70 communities have rejected fluoridation since 2010. Civil rights leaders oppose fluoridation because its negative side effects disproportionately impact poor communities. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Headquarters Professionals’ Union, which represents knowledgeable scientists, lawyers, and other environmental professionals, opposes fluoridation. Many scientists, including Nobel Prize winners, oppose fluoridation. Finally, the US National Resource Council of the National Academies published a comprehensive review in 2006 that concluded that the current EPA standard was not adequately protecting health and, based on the available evidence at that time, recommended that the maximum contaminant level for fluoride be lowered. This recommendation placed the maximum contaminant level near the level provided via fluoridation.

While I will keep an open mind regarding the latest research, at least three facts are indisputable. 1) Fluoridation provides an uncontrolled fluoride dose. 2) Fluoridation began before research showed that fluoride’s benefits were due to topical application not ingestion. 3) Fluoridation began before all its side effects were known. Even if our perspectives differ, I hope that we can agree to vote for article 40 at town meeting. This would allow every Lincoln resident to weigh the benefits and risks over the coming year. By discussing our perspectives, each of us will likely learn something.

Dan Merfeld is a Lincoln resident and a Harvard Medical School professor. A version of this text with endnotes will be available at town meeting and online at www.wickedlocal.com/lincoln

World water day

World Water Day 2013 in 15 seconds

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Richard Branson – Water crisis – How do we save the water?

www.wholeworldwater.co

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Water news archives – 600 articles-March 2012~Feb 2013: updated daily – click here Support Save the Water™ click here.

Supporting the water research and education programs of Save the Water™
is vital to our future generation’s health, your funding is needed today.

Vol. V
591
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World Water Day 2013- DILOS™ Global Launch March 22, 2013 ~ International ® Protective Coatings Sponsor

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Junior Resources

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Intermediate Resources

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Microscopic Images

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Whether you use these resources for research or education, we hope you become part of the solution that will bring clean healthy water for all people regardless of their social or economic status.

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World Water Day 2013: Special edition – A day in the life of a scientist – “DILOS™ Program” Global Launch – STEM water science education.

Introduction to the DILOS™ program and the scientific method

A day in the life of a scientist:

DILOS™

World Water Day 2013 field trip.

International® Protective Coatings: Corporate Sponsor

Family in Distress South Florida Community Partner

Date & Time: March 22, 2013, 10:00 AM
STW ref: 13c22fr
Location: Holiday Park
Address: 21100 Griffin Rd. Fl. 33332

This program can be adapted to classes with special curriculum needs or requirements.

World Water Day 2013 event background

In January of 2013 International® Protective Coatings / Water & Wastewater division contacted Save the Water™ in regards to the World Water Day event being planned for March 22, 2013.

After reviewing “A day in the life of a scientist” DILOS™ Program, a STEM science program, International® Protective Coatings graciously decided to sponsor this World Water Day 2013 event.

Family in Distress brought children and teenagers together for the event and the DILOS™ Program was launched.

A day in the life of a scientist field trip is an exciting learning experience at South Florida Holiday Everglades Park. Part one of a two part program

Introduction: field observation and water sampling.

I. Introduction to the DILOS™ program and the scientific method

• Brief introduction to the children regarding Save the Water™, DILOS™, and the AquaSquad™ and what we do in the community to educate and research water issues.

• We then discussed what scientist do and the hundreds of ologies that are in the scientific field. [-ology, a suffix derived from the Greek logos, meaning the 'study of', 'specialty in' or 'art of' a given scientific or medical field.] • Next we talked about the water-cycle, south Florida’s watersheds and the main purpose of the participants research during the field trip.What is the overall condition of south Florida's Everglades watershed and freshwater?

• Next we talked about the water-cycle, south Florida’s watersheds and the main purpose of the participants research during the field trip. [What is the overall condition of south Florida's Everglades watershed and freshwater?]

South Florida Water Maps

• Next we talked about the water-cycle, south Florida’s watersheds and the main purpose of the participants research during the field trip Top of page

• A participant guide based upon the field trips objective and lab notebook sheet were given to the children.

• An explanation of the “Scientific method” that would be used during the course of the day was then discussed detailing the following steps:

Ask a question
Make observation and do research
Form a hypothesis

Perform experiments
Test hypothesis and accept or reject hypothesis
Make a conclusion

Lab notebook procedure Lab note book

• We began by showing and explaining to the children why their lab notebooks were important for recording the day’s events and findings, referring to the scientific method during this discussion.

• The children learned how to use their cell phones and lab tops to obtain and enter necessary data into their lab notebooks.

Sample description:
Location
Address:
GPS coordinates:
Barometric pressure

Water
Holliday park
21100 Griffin Rd. 33332
26.058965 – 80.430763
(mmHg): 766.6

• As the foregoing data was being entered, the reasons for each entry were explained and questions by the children of “why is this information important?” were discussed.

• We could tell that our participants were getting anxious to get into the field so we wrapped up this stage with a brief safety discussion. [Time 45 minutes]

II. Observations of surroundings

Field trip location

Analyzing environment and man-made properties of Holliday Park watershed and Everglades freshwater

• The participants began their observations by physically taking count of the following:

• 1) Fish 2) Birds 3) People 4) Trash cans 5) Polluted areas 6) Boats 7) Human Activities.

Many of the participants took pictures and commented sadly about the amount of pollution that was visible.

They observed plastic bottles floating over water areas and washed ashore.

They observed gas floating on the water in certain areas.

They noted over twenty areas in which the water was polluted with plastic bottles chip bags and soda cans.

During this period, the children were writing notes regarding their observations.

The participants asked questions that substantiated their concerns and wrote down questions that we discussed later. They tried not to leave anything out that they believed was wrong with the watershed area.

“How can the fish live in this?” questioned one participant.

“How can they live in it?…we drink this too.” remarked another child.

Analyzing environment and man-made properties of Holliday Park watershed and Everglades freshwater

Total observations averaged

The participants went back to the work area and after filling in their lab notebooks they compared findings with each other to formulate a data average:

• Total fish
• Total birds
• People
• Trash cans
• Polluted areas
• Cars
• Boats
[Time 30 minutes]

6 live 1 dead
100-150
110 +
13
200 yards shoreline “at least 2 football fields”
72+
25

After observation data was entered, it was time for lunch.
The participants went back to the work area and after filling in their lab notebooks they compared findings with each other to formulate a data average:

A day in the life of a scientist (DILOS™) field trip: an exciting learning experience at South Florida Holliday Everglades Park. Part one of a two part program

Lunch-break with the alligators

Aligator Lunch
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Lunch-break alligators not invited

Lunch break alligators not invited Top of page

Field lab: Water analysis and microscope viewing of samples.

III. Collection of water samples for analysis.

Collecting the samples to study and formulate a conclusion.

After the lunch-break the participants began the next stage of the DILOS™ Program by collecting water samples.

They all agreed that the area in which they observed the most pollutants would give them the accurate samples to analyze the condition of the condition of the freshwater at Holiday Park. [Time 30 minutes]

IV. Analyzing water samples

Visual analysis of water samples

• Brief introduction and hands-on instructions were given to the children regarding the proper set-up of the microscope.

• Discussed the proper handling of samples and preparation of microscope slides.

• The children then took study samples of the water they had collected.

• Prior to microscope analysis of the sampled water, the children used a magnifying glass to see what was evident in the water without further use of magnification with the microscope. [Time 15 minutes]

Microscope analysis of water samples

• After the children noted what could be seen in the water samples with the naked eye and magnifying glass a slide was prepared to be viewed under the microscope. [Time 20 minutes]

• The children were amazed to find microorganisms in the water that they had just inspected with a magnifying glass and could not see.

V. Testing water samples

Visual analysis of water samples Microscope Microorganism Images

• Brief introduction of the fundamentals of each water test was discussed with the children.

• The children participated in the testing and recording of the following:

Parameter
Temperature (deg C):
Ambient:
Sample:
pH:
Specific gravity:
Conductivity:
TDS (mg/l):
Salinity (ppt):
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l):
Ammonia (mg/l):
Nitrite (mg/l):
Nitrate (mg/l):
[Time 20 minutes]

Value

23.5
24
7.8
1
n/a
424 / 417
n/a
119
N/A
0
0

VI. Conclusion

Question:
What is the overall condition of south Florida’s Everglades watershed and freshwater?
Data evaluation. The data in section II was evaluated

• After we analyzed the information the children had gathered we came to an agreed conclusion:

• Holliday Park is a Broward County Recreational Park with air boat rides, alligator shows, and other tourist’s attractions.

• There are public bathrooms and a convenience store. Motorcycle riders gather at this location on the weekends.

• Human activities definitely have an impact on the area. Emulsified oil foam was observed on the shore as well as oil sheen on the surface trailing some boats. Thrash and other debris were noticed on the shores (see photos). The color of the water was brown as weak coffee color.

Conclusion:

• After we analyzed the information the children had gathered we came to an agreed conclusion:

•The condition of this area of the Everglades is normal to sub-normal until further studies. [Time 20 minutes]

The children learned what a typical day in the life of a scientist is like and now have a clearer understanding of the scientific method. They also acquired a greater appreciation for the value of our water and the environment.

The children experienced a fun field trip while learning field water testing techniques.

Part Two

Part two of the program consists of continuing water education and community service through the AquaSquad™ program. The student members of the AquaSquad™ adopt-a-waterway near the school to visit on a regular basis to monitor environmental conditions and assist in clean-up if necessary.

Complete details about the AquaSquad™ can be found at: STEM and Water Science Education

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