at Save the Water | October 24, 2022 

Many people feel helpless when it comes to advocating for positive change. There are big issues to resolve, such as water contamination. People may feel like no matter how much they ask for cleaner water, the issue is out of their control.

However, there are many examples of people’s advocacy for their own well-being for major change. Such events should inspire us to work towards a healthier future.

The Story of the Short Beach Neighborhood in Branford, Connecticut 

Long Island Sound, an island group in the United States that includes the Short Beach neighborhood, has suffered from fecal contamination in the water for many years. 

There are many negative health effects due to fecal contamination of water: 

• Increased spread of diseases, such as cholera, polio, and hepatitis A
• Malnutrition and dehydration due to diarrhea 
• Loss of money due to the time spent on accessing clean water
• Insects that spread disease may reproduce in fecal water and spread disease to clean water containers 

The Short Beach neighborhood had been experiencing high rates of Escherichia coli bacteria. The suspected cause was a the sewage system breach into the stormwater. 

A team of students and faculty members from Yale University wanted to work with the local health department to map local sewage systems. A clear map with these locations would allow them to assess the possible sources of contamination.

The Power of Citizens to Push for Change

The local health department and students from Yale University recruited eight citizen science volunteers. The volunteers were given  written protocol. The laboratory was able to measure the levels of bacterial contamination.  

The department and students used volunteers to foster an engaged relationship between academic researchers, local governments,health departments, and neighborhood residents. This is a way to ensure long-term cooperation that results in sustainability. It can prevent the problem from coming back in the community after the researchers have left.

An important aspect of this project was that the community was still involved even after the sampling of the water. Attendees from the neighborhood discussed the results of the water contamination levels at Civic Association meetings. They were able to give their input on recommended policies for improving the local water quality.

Sustainable Projects in the Future

The transparency of the researchers and the involvement of neighborhood residents helped the project become sustainable. The people living in the area are actively involved in ensuring a clean source of water. 

Strong engagement of citizens in their own health is a great method that will save resources. Volunteers need to see that their contributions are heard. This means that communication is necessary in these projects in order to engage the volunteers. 

Fecal contamination rates of all water sources went above the Connecticut Department of Public Health guidelines. With this knowledge, the state will be able to intervene and ensure clean water. This successful story should be an inspiration to citizens everywhere. It shows that they can make a difference in their communities by volunteering and engaging in making their neighborhoods better. 

at Save the Water | October 19, 2022.

SODIS is a World Health Organization (WHO)-approved, cheap, old-school process commonly used for domestic water treatment. It does not change the taste of water. The USA is one of the top countries in the world publishing research in this growing area of interest.

More About SODIS

SODIS is basically an environment-dependent, repeatable process. We can start it at our home by using ordinary plastic bottles or containers. It is mainly used in areas where sunlight is abundant. Ultraviolet (UV) rays of sunlight can effectively kill viruses and microorganisms like E. coli present in contaminated water which are even resistant to chlorination. These rays inactivate and damage cells of microorganisms, thus, preventing them from multiplying further. Additionally, such microorganisms cause various water-borne diseases like typhoid, dysentery, fever, intestinal infection, and many more. Water is treated and stored in the same container, hence it is an overall cheap, less time-consuming, space-occupying technique with fewer chances of recontamination.

How Does it Work?

SODIS works by using UV-A and infrared (IR) radiations of sunlight altogether. Initially, UV-A radiations damage living cells of microorganisms. After that, when temperature of water rises to 70-75 °C, IR rays help in thermal disinfection, or pasteurization of water. Therefore, the overall efficiency of the process increases. Since microorganisms are extremely sensitive to heat, they do not survive in these specific conditions.

This method appeared to be better at killing microorganisms in water, when compared with other traditional water treatment techniques like chlorination, filtration, ozonation, electroflocculation, advanced oxidation, and others. Besides, it does not produce harmful by-products and certainly is way cheaper.

Time Taken by SODIS

Sunny days- 6 hours.

Cloudy days- 48 hours.

Not favorable during rainy days.

If the turbidity of contaminated water is high, then the period of SODIS treatment extends.

Some Real-world Examples

1.       Lexington, KY, USA: Environmental Research Training Laboratory (ERTL) at the University of Kentucky conducted some experiments to study the feasibility of SODIS in removing E. coli from turbid water at temperature less than 50 °C. When the turbidity of water was increased from 30 to 200 Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU), the efficiency of SODIS in killing microorganisms decreased accordingly.
2.       Ecuador and Bolivia: Jonathan Spear & Valerie Grosscup, The Colorado College, USA, helped about 35 communities and more than 3,500 people on the northern coast of Ecuador with their seven-week SODIS project. Engineers Without Borders (EWB)-USA has run the SODIS project to improve water quality in rural communities of Bolivia. Missouri University of Science and Technology conducted SODIS experiments, under sunny and cloudy weather conditions. Later, it was concluded that on sunny days, E. coli were completely removed from water while on cloudy days, only 50% were removed efficiently.

 Advantages of SODIS

• SODIS not only improves the microbiological quality of drinking water but also reduces cases of waterborne diseases, thereby supporting human health.
• It is affordable, simple, and replicable technique because it depends on sunlight, a renewable source of energy.
• The use of traditional heating sources like coal, fuel, and wood is not involved, thus reducing environmental pollution.
• The chance of recontamination is low if purified water is consumed within 24 hours.
• It does not require huge machinery or costly infrastructure, and it can be started at home with plastic bottles.

Limitations of SODIS

• SODIS requires sufficient sunlight. For that reason, its use chiefly depends on the weather and climatic conditions.
• It cannot be used for very dirty, turbid water.
• It is not useful for treating large volumes of water.
• In unfavorable weather conditions, SODIS requires more time to treat water.
• Plastic containers used in the SODIS technique get contaminated, causing leaching of harmful elements and associated health problems, if used for long  periods.
• It cannot treat non-biological impurities in water.

Solutions to the Problems

• To avoid the harmful effect of plastic bottles, alternative materials could be containers made of glass, polypropylene, polycarbonate, polyethylene, and others. 
• Carbonates and bicarbonates dissolved in water absorb UV radiations and do not disturb the process.
• Use of mirrors, solar collectors concentrate solar radiations, consequently process efficiency increases significantly. 
• The bottom part of SODIS containers can be painted black, so that higher temperatures can be maintained inside. 
• Integration of photocatalysts, pretreatment of water (use of natural coagulants and adsorbents), and the use of continuous flow-based systems can enhance the efficiency of SODIS.

What Can You Do to Support SODIS?

SODIS is indeed getting more popular, as the amount of research on it has been increasing every year. These studies suggest that SODIS can be used worldwide to treat water irrespective of weather conditions, as it worked well even in the colder climate of Finland. This cheap, low-tech process can also treat harvested rainwater in poor regions. With this in mind, more investigations are required to estimate all the design and control parameters for SODIS treatment of water. Not to mention, we can break social barriers to this technique by publicizing this practice even more at the community level.

In today’s world of supermarkets filled year-round with a diverse array of fruits and vegetables, it is easy to forget where our fresh produce comes from. The two United States E. coli outbreaks of 2018 were a startling reminder. In the spring and fall of last year, stores and restaurants pulled romaine lettuce from their shelves and menus because it was potentially carrying the dangerous E. coli bacteria. According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the June outbreak infected a reported 210 people. Of these, 96 were hospitalized, 27 developed kidney failure, and five died of their illness.1 The latest outbreak infected 62 people from October 7 to December 4, with 25 hospitalizations and no deaths.2

How did not just one, but two romaine lettuce outbreaks happen last year? Investigations are ongoing, but the number one suspect is waste-filled water.

Finding the Source

The CDC and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) used whole genome sequencing to trace the outbreaks back to their origins. Whole genome sequencing allows scientists to read the unique DNA of germs, a process not unlike reading fingerprints at the scene of a crime. The more similar germs’ DNA is to each other, the more likely it is that they came from the same source.3

These tests indicated that June’s E. coli outbreak came from canal water in the Yucca, Arizona, growing region. The second outbreak was traced back to an agricultural water reservoir in California’s central coastal region.3 This water could have contaminated the lettuce when farmers used it to irrigate their crops and dilute pesticides.

But how did E. coli get into the water in the first place? Investigators have found a likely answer: the canal in Yucca is located near a concentrated animal feeding operation. Concentrated animal feeding operations keep large amounts of livestock (for example, 1,000 or more beef cattle) in a comparatively small area of land.4 Such places produce huge amounts of waste, and it is very possible that some found its way into the canal. Animal waste happens to be a major source of E. coli.5

As for the water in California’s coastal region, the ultimate source of the E. coli is still under heavy investigation.

What Can You Do?

The FDA has recently made an agreement with grower-shippers to label their romaine lettuce with the region where they were grown and the harvest date. This makes it easier to identify and remove contaminated produce.6 In terms of prevention, we hope that the results from the current investigations will prompt effective action to prevent potential sources of disease from tainting agricultural water supplies.

In the meantime, we recommend the following actions to minimize the risk of contracting E. coli from food:

1. Purchase lettuce that is labeled with a growing region and harvest date. Therefore, in the case of a future outbreak, you will be able to quickly determine if you are at risk.7
2. Avoid foods that have an exceptionally high chance of carrying E. coli. This includes undercooked ground beef, unpasteurized milk and juice, cheese made from unpasteurized milk, and (sadly) raw cookie dough.8
   
3. Wash your hands before preparing food.
4. Wash your hands after diapering infants or interacting with livestock animals and/or their environment and supplies.8
   
5. Prepare raw meat separately from fruits and vegetables.2
   
6. Do not drink untreated water or swim in contaminated areas.8

References

1. Center for Disease Control. June 28, 2018. “Multistate outbreak of E. coli 0157:H7 infections linked to romaine lettuce (final update).” https://www.cdc.gov/ecoli/2018/o157h7-04-18/index.html
2. Center for Disease Control. January 9, 2019. “Outbreak of E.coli infections linked to romaine lettuce.” https://www.cdc.gov/ecoli/2018/o157h7-11-18/index.html
3. Center for Disease Control. “Whole genome sequencing.” https://bit.ly/2WtJiLQ
4. United States Department of Agriculture. “Animal feeding operations (AFO) and concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFO).”  https://bit.ly/2g7Hwxa
5. Zlati Meyer. August 8, 2018. “Large cattle farm may have caused romaine lettuce E. coli outbreak.” USA Today, CNBC. https://cnb.cx/2WtJTx4
6. National Law Review. January 14, 2019. “CDC declares end to latest E. coli outbreak linked to romaine.” https://bit.ly/2Uy98N2
7. U.S. Food & Drug Administration. January 9, 2019. “FDA continues investigation into source of E. coli 0157:H7 outbreak linked to romaine lettuce grown in CA; CDC reports end to associated illnesses.” https://bit.ly/2HIvjhN
8. Foodsafety.gov. “E. coli.” https://www.foodsafety.gov/poisoning/causes/bacteriaviruses/ecoli/index.html

Do You Think Your Water Is Safe?

Take one good look at the glass of water on your table. Do you think it is pure and free from harmful bacteria? We all assume that the water we drink daily is safe for human consumption. Sure, the water we sip with our dinner may taste normal or may have a clear appearance that suggests purity. But there is more than meets the eye when dealing with bacteria in our drinking water. Water may look safe but can contain many chemicals and harmful toxicants. Consuming tainted water can have severe health effects, including death. There are many types of bacteria that can come into contact with our drinking water. Let us take a brief look at some of them.

The Bacteria In Our Water

Campylobacter jejuni causes the infection campylobacteriosis. Its symptoms include fever, diarrhea, and cramps and can appear within 2 to 10 days after exposure.1 Campylobacter may be in water such as private wells, especially after flooding. Infected people and animals excrete this bacteria in their feces. As a result, this bacteria moves with human waste and can enter water through:

• – Sewage overflows
• – Sewage systems that aren’t working properly
• – Untreated stormwater runoff
• – Runoff from farms2

Next, we have escherichia coli, commonly known as E. Coli. E. coli’s symptoms include diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, nausea, and vomiting. All these symptoms appear 1 to 8 days after exposure.3

Another bacteria that contaminates water is Legionella Pneumophila. It is a type of bacteria that causes a serious infection known as legionellosis or legionnaires disease.1 Muscle aches, coughing, high fever, and shortness of breath are accompanying symptoms. Luckily, legionnaires disease is not contagious. Only drinking contaminated water transmits this disease. This bacteria is found in potable and nonpotable water.4

Yet another bacteria is salmonella. Like other bacteria, it is present in both food and water. Salmonella takes 1 to 3 days to have symptoms such as fever, headache, chills, diarrhea, pain, and nausea. According to the Center for Disease Control, this infection is more common in the summer months of June, July, and August.5

A Virus and A Parasite

Giardia Lamblia is a parasite which causes giardiasis, which is an intestinal infection. This leads to diarrhea, gas, nausea, and cramps. “Giardia lamblia is most commonly found in recreational water.”1 It can take 1 to 2 weeks for giardiasis to incubate. Like Campylobacter and E. Coli, Giardia Lamblia is passed in the feces of an infected animal or person.This parasite has an outer shell that allows it to live outside the body for months. Over the last 30 years, people have recognized Giardia infection “as a common cause of waterborne disease in humans in the United States.”6 Worldwide, Giardia causes infections. Giardia cause infections worldwide.6

Now, let’s turn to Hepatitis A. This virus will cause serious infections that give way to nausea, stomach pain, fatigue, fever, jaundice, and dark urine. Hepatitis A has a prolonged incubation period. As a result, symptoms don’t appear until 28 days after exposure. Hepatitis A is a contagious liver disease that results from contracting Hepatitis A.7 Again, this disease spreads when a person ingests fecal matter, even in “microscopic amounts.”7 Because of this, this contact can come from drinks, including water.

Who Decides When the Water is Safe?

Generally, nobody wants to get sick or poisoned from water that is dirty and contaminated. As a result, safety precautions protect our drinking supply to prevent and to detect compromised water. Now, in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates public water supplies. Therefore, public water suppliers must test regularly for bacterial contamination. Also, the public water supplies must provide water that delivers a certain standard, that it is up to par and safe for human consumption. The EPA designates zero total coliform per 100 milliliters of water as a rule of thumb.8 A safety standard exists to protect consumers from a mass water contamination outbreak. The EPA will notify the public if such an event occurs. After that, the proper steps will be taken to ensure the water is safe to consume.

How do You Treat Water for Bacteria?

Now, we have many ways to treat bacteria in water. Let us see how ultraviolet radiation, chlorination, and distillation play a role in safeguarding us.

First, ultraviolet radiation works by exposing water to a light source emitted from a lamp. Three factors determine the percentage of organism killed by UV treatment:

• – Intensity of the UV light
• – How long the water has contact with the UV light
• – How many suspended solid particles are in the water9

Ultraviolet radiation has been used for more than 75 years to treat water supplies. UV light is both odorless and tasteless. Also, it is effective within seconds. Another key advantage of this type of treatment is that chemicals are not introduced into the water supply.9

Next, chlorination works by disinfecting bacteria in water. For this method, the water supplier must put chlorine in water. “Chlorine disinfection is a point-of-entry treatment that kills pathogens, including certain viruses and bacteria.”10 Also, chlorination can provide residual disinfection throughout the water distribution system in a household. A longer exposure time to water with chlorine will provide effective results in eliminating bacteria from water. Chlorine can either come in a dry powder pellet form or in a liquid form.10

Last, distillation is one of the oldest methods of treating contaminated water. This method requires boiling water, which produces steam. After that, the steam is collected and then cooled back to water “in a separate chamber.”11 Generally, this method is used for drinking water or special uses. Distilled water is nearly pure and removes over 99.9 % of dissolved materials.11

What Can We Do To Protect Ourselves from Contaminated Water?

The following are ways that you can protect yourself from contaminated water:

• – Purchase a water testing kit if you suspect your water is compromised.
• – Contact your local, county, or state public utilities department if you have found a contaminated water source or if you think your water is unsafe to consume.
• – Be wary of drinking water from your bathroom and kitchen sinks.
  Don’t drink tap water, especially while traveling abroad.
• – Pay attention to your body if you feel sick from consuming water from an unknown source and seek medical attention.
• – Wash your hands thoroughly and frequently if you come into contact with contaminated water or a contaminated water source.

References

• 1. Blue Earth Products. “Types Of Waterborne Pathogens Found In Your Water System.” http://www.blueearthlabs.com/maintenance-cleaning/types-of-waterborne-pathogens-found-in-your-water-system/
  2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Campylobacter and Drinking from Private Wells.” https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/private/wells/disease/campylobacter.html
  3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “What is Escherichia coli 0157:H7?.” https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/private/wells/disease/e_coli.html
  4. Legionella.org. “About the Disease.” http://legionella.org/about-the-disease/what-is-legionnaires-disease/is-it-contagious/
  5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Questions and Answers: What is Salmonella?” https://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/general/technical.html
  6. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. “What is giardiasis?” https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/private/wells/disease/giardia.html
  7. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. “What is Hepatitis A?.” https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/private/wells/disease/hepatitis_a.html
  8. Extension. December 8, 2010. “Drinking Water Contaminant-Bacteria.” http://articles.extension.org/pages/31551/drinking-water-contaminant-bacteria
  9. Extension. January 4, 2011. “Drinking Water Treatment-Ultraviolet Radiation.” http://articles.extension.org/pages/32309/drinking-water-treatment-ultraviolet-radiation
  10. Extension. December 17, 2010. “Drinking Water Treatment-Chlorination.” http://articles.extension.org/pages/31573/drinking-water-treatment-chlorination
  11. Extension. December 6, 2010. “Drinking Water Treatment-Distillation.” http://articles.extension.org/pages/31572/drinking-water-treatment-distillation

In recent years, harmful bacteria like Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Listeria monocytogenes (Listeria) have been responsible for high-profile outbreaks of illness and even death. Though cases of infection often arise from food sources, further investigation reveals contaminated water as the chief vehicle in accelerating widespread infection. Currently, water treatment plants (WTPs) and food manufacturers use powerful chemical disinfectants to prevent the spread of pathogens. However, in the presence of certain organic compounds, these chemicals can form disinfection byproducts (DBPs) that are harmful to both human health and the environment. These risks prompt the need for alternative technologies that are sustainable, eco-friendly, and just as effective as their predecessors.

In September, Dr. David Wendell and his team of researchers at the University of Cincinnati revealed a groundbreaking water treatment technology that may be the perfect alternative. Their StrepMiniSog‒antibody (SMS‒antibody) system is a customizable protein-based photocatalyst that can selectively “seek-and-destroy” pathogens using just light. This discovery has the potential to change not only the way we disinfect our water sources, but also how we react to threats of outbreak.1

Outbreaks of foodborne illness stem from water contamination

The O157:H7 strain of E. coli is responsible for 73,000 annual cases of illness in the United States.9 It is commonly transmitted through contact with human and animal waste. In severe cases, exposure can lead to gastrointestinal infection, hemorrhagic diarrhea, and vomiting. In 2006, an outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 infections was linked to the Dole brand’s fresh spinach, bagged in California. The incident affected 26 states and caused 205 confirmed cases of illness and 3 deaths.2,3 The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) concluded that the source of exposure was fecal matter from a nearby cattle and pig farm that contaminated groundwater stores used for irrigating the spinach.4

Though exposure to Listeria is rarer than E. coli, infection from Listeria (called listeriosis) is more deadly. This bacteria is responsible for an estimated 1,600 annual cases, 260 of which lead to death.5 Listeriosis can cause fever, gastroenteritis, vomiting, and in severe cases, infections of the central nervous system like meningitis. It can even be transmitted from infected mother to fetus. In 2011, a Listeria outbreak was linked to cantaloupes grown on a Jensen Farm in Colorado. The incident affected 28 states and caused 147 confirmed cases of illness and 33 deaths.6,7 The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) concluded that Listeria was transmitted to the cantaloupes through dirty machinery and pools of contaminated water close to packing equipment.3

Chemical disinfectants are effective, but are flawed

To minimize the risk of outbreak, quick and efficient measures need to be employed right at the moment of detection. The most common method of eliminating pathogens is through chemical disinfectants like chlorine. Water treatment plants use this approach because it is fast and highly effective. In the food industry, chlorinated water is used to similarly disinfect the surfaces of food products such as fruits, vegetables, poultry, nuts, and eggs. Additionally, chlorine-containing chemicals are used to clean work surfaces to avoid bacterial growth and cross-contamination of products.8

Although chemical disinfectants are effective in removing pathogens, they are flawed. These chemicals are broad-spectrum disinfectants that kill microorganisms indiscriminately. This measure is too effective and also kills beneficial organisms like those used in biofilters, which remove organic matter in water treatment processes. Furthermore, residual disinfectants left in our water supply as a preventative measure are at risk of forming harmful DBPs like trihalomethanes, which are known to increase risks of cancer and to damage the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system. DBPs are also a concern in the food industry, but the types, quantities, and impacts are difficult to predict because the chemical composition of food is much more complex than that of water.8 These concerns, as well as their negative impacts on human health and the environment, elicit a need for better alternatives.

New water treatment technology is renewable, biodegradable, and efficient

Wendell’s SMS‒antibody system is an elegant design. The system is outfitted with targeting antibodies that help guide the photocatalyst to the pathogen of interest. Then, all it takes is blue-colored light to trigger a cascade of reactions that directly deliver toxic hydrogen peroxide to the pathogen. So far, they have demonstrated this technology for two types of bacteria: E. coli and Listeria. Their studies show that they can remove 54% of E. coli after 90 minutes of light exposure and 80% of Listeria after 30 minutes of light exposure.1

The system is an ideal alternative because it is renewable–the targeting antibodies can be removed and replaced using well-established methods. It is biodegradable–digestive enzymes in the human gut can easily break down the protein. And it is efficient–it can be customized to selectively disinfect a pathogen in a direct, targeted fashion. From a mixture of E. coli and Listeria, they show that a system customized to target Listeria will only kill Listeria. These results suggest that in large-scale applications, less material than traditional disinfectants would be necessary to remove unwanted pathogens.1

This technology inspires endless possibilities. Wendell states, “In the environment or engineered water treatment systems there are many bacteria that you want to preserve…We need a disinfectant that can ignore helpful bacteria while neutralizing pathogens responsible for sporadic outbreaks…By using a selective approach we can preserve existing microbiomes, which makes them more resistant to opportunistic pathogens.”10

When will we see this technology in operation?

Wendell and his team are still determining the full potential of this technology. Their study reports successful disinfection of E. coli and Listeria. However, there are several other pathogens that extend beyond these bacteria. Viruses like Enteroviruses and Hepatitis A, as well as protozoa like Cryptosporidium and Giardia, also risk human health. They believe their technology can be applied to viruses and protozoa, but its efficacy is still unknown. Wendell also believes that this technology can be commercialized in less than five years.10 The National Science Foundation supports Wendell’s confidence and awarded him with the prestigious CAREER Award. The honor comes with a $500,000 grant to develop a way to mass produce his pathogen-targeting technology.

References

1. E.M. Wurtzler & D. Wendell. 2016. “Selective Photocatalytic Disinfection by Coupling StrepMiniSog to the Antibody Catalyzed Water Oxidation Pathway.” PLoS ONE 11(9): e0162577. doi:10.1371/journal. Pone.0162577.
2. Food and Drug Administration. October 19, 2011. “Environmental Assessment: Factors Potentially Contributing to the Contamination of Fresh Whole Cantaloupe Implicated in a Multi-State Outbreak of Listeriosis.” http://www.fda.gov/Food/RecallsOutbreaksEmergencies/Outbreaks/ucm276247.htm
3. Food and Drug Administration. March 23, 2007.  “FDA Finalizes Report on 2006 Spinach Outbreak.” http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2007/ucm108873.htm
4. R. J. Gelting, et al. 2011. “Irrigation water issues potentially related to the 2006 multistate E. coli O157:H7 outbreak associated with spinach.” Agricultural Water Management, 98(9), 1395-1402. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2011.04.004.
5. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. August 18, 2016. “Listeria.” https://www.cdc.gov/listeria/
6. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. 2006. “Multistate Outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 Infections Linked to Fresh Spinach.” https://www.cdc.gov/ecoli/2006/spinach-10-2006.html
7. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. 2012. “Multistate Outbreak of Listeriosis Linked to Whole Cantaloupes from Jensen Farms, Colorado.” https://www.cdc.gov/listeria/outbreaks/cantaloupes-jensen-farms/
8. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization. 2009. “Benefits and Risks of Chlorine-containing Disinfectants in Food Production and Food Processing: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Meeting, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 27-30 May 2008.” Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Document Production Services.
9. J.M. Rangel, et al. 2005. “Epidemiology of Escherichia coli O157:H7 Outbreaks, United States, 1982–2002.” Emerging Infectious Diseases, 11(4), 603-609. doi:10.3201/eid1104.040739.
10. J. Bach. October 5, 2016. “UC Researcher Develops Clean Water-Treatment Option to Target Sporadic Outbreaks.” UC Magazine. http://magazine.uc.edu/

As the days get longer and the sun gets brighter, the word “summer” becomes more and more prevalent, and with the word “summer” comes to the word “beach.” The cool water, the soft sand, and the ocean air hold a certain allure that makes thousands of Americans flock to beaches each year. However, beach season comes with increased exposure to possible bacteria in the ocean water. This forces us to ask the question: what’s in the water?

Beach Buoy Ecological Development

Enter the beach buoy detection system. We know beach buoys as floating navigational markers, noting water areas for increased mindfulness and danger, but scientists are trying to give buoys a more ecological role. New technology has allowed scientists at Michigan State University to develop a “smart” buoy, one that is able to detect and evaluate the quality of the water around it. It functions through a combination of substance detection and statistical models to determine if the water holds a higher level of a substance than is safe. The sensors in the buoys gather the information from the water, such as temperature and clarity, and upload the data to a land-based server. Then, it sends the information to people who might need to make the decision to close the beach, as well as to web pages that allow the public to view the information.3

This method serves a major purpose. The initial model of the buoy detects levels of E. coli, a generic bacteria that often serves as an indicator for water contamination. While most strains of E. coli are harmless— the bacteria is often found in our intestinal tracts and is necessary for normal functioning—some are pathogenic. Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) is one of these pathogenic strains and is the one we often associate with food-borne outbreaks. These strains of pathogenic E. coli is known to cause diarrhea and related symptoms, and “can be transmitted through contaminated water or food, or through contact with animals or persons”.1 E. coli, an example of fecal coliform bacteria (a group of bacteria that passes through the fecal excrement of mammals), can transmit “ear infections, dysentery, typhoid fever, viral and bacterial gastroenteritis, and hepatitis A”.4

So does this mean that all water we encounter in our beach trips is contaminated with large amounts of pathogenic bacteria and that no one should go to the beach this summer in fear of contracting numerous diseases? While the latter may be a ridiculous statement, the former holds some truth to it. Of course, not all water contains a dangerously high level of pathogenic bacteria, and while the water may contain certain, healthy levels of bacteria, it should not deter us from taking a trip to the beach. However, it must be noted that in some situations, ocean water does contain dangerously high levels of bacteria, especially pathogenic strains, to the point where it is safer for the beach to be closed down at that time.

Beach Buoys Save The Day

Smart beach buoys work to alleviate this fear. Evaluating water quality and detecting abnormally high levels of bacteria in the water help provide information to beach officials for informed decisions. The Environmental Protection Agency has done much to protect the health of beach-goers—in 2014, they proposed guidance for state water quality testing grants under the Beaches Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health (BEACH) Act to use a new tool called the health-protective Beach Action Value (BAV) in order to make more protective swimming advisory decisions.2 However, the risk of pathogenic bacteria being present in water is still troubling. Smart beach buoys have been effective in determining the safety of the water we wade in: “In 2013 accuracy was 68–97%; specificity, 73–100%; and sensitivity, 0–36%”.5 Mantha Phanikumar, an MSU professor and member of the research team, said it best when describing the goal of the buoys: “Our ultimate goal is to protect the public from getting exposed to contaminated water… This problem can be particularly hard for children and seniors, who tend to be more susceptible to its dangers”. 3 After all, safety should always be on our minds. Hopefully, in the near future when we head down to the beach, we may not have to worry about the contents of the water due to the smart buoys.

References

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. November 6, 2015. “E.coli (Escherichia Coli) general information.” http://www.cdc.gov/ecoli/general/index.html
2. J. Devine. June 30, 2014. “Testing the Waters 2014: A guide to water quality at vacation beaches.” https://www.nrdc.org/resources/testing-waters-2014-guide-water-quality-vacation-beaches
3. Michigan State University. April 27, 2016. “Beach Buoys deployed to detect water contamination.” http://msutoday.msu.edu/news/2016/beach-buoys-deployed-to-detect-water-contamination/
4. B. Oram. 2014. “Why is fecal coliform testing important – E. coli?” http://www.water-research.net/index.php/e-coli-in-water
5. D.A., Shively, et al. January 15, 2016. “Prototypic automated continuous recreational water quality monitoring of nine Chicago beaches.” Journal of Environmental Management, 166, 285-93. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.10.011

Bottled water is a common sight everywhere in North America. People pick it up in packs of several dozen from the grocery store, carry it along on their jogs in the park, and wash down their meals with it. Some individuals make it a point to drink only premium brand bottled water, and the more extravagant among us even use it to wash their faces or brush their teeth. Common knowledge suggests that drinking bottled water is a clean,  safe, and — depending on how well a particular brand is marketed — healthy way to quench our thirst.

However, that is not always true. In June 2015, Niagara Bottling released a voluntary recall announcement for 14 brands of bottled water, citing a possible E. Coli contamination as the reason. These brands are Acadia, Acme, Big Y, Best Yet, 7-11, Niagara, Nature’s Place, Pricerite, Superchill, Morning Fresh, Shaw’s, Shoprite, Western Beef Blue, and Wegman’s (Rhodan). E. Coli is a bacteria that can cause vomiting, diarrhea, fevers, and stomach cramps when introduced into the human body. It can even induce hemolytic uremic syndrome — a potentially fatal condition — in a significant percentage of children and elderly people (“E. Coli”).  According to the CDC, there have been at least eight major outbreaks of illnesses in North America due to contaminated bottled water since 2000 (“Commercially Bottled Water”).

Bottled water has always been thought to be cleaner and safer than tap water, and indeed, many bottling companies do implement stringent manufacturing processes. Nestle, for example, collects water from regularly-tested sources such as local wells or municipal water supplies. This water is then put through several stages of chemical treatment, disinfection, and purification. An independent laboratory conducts a final round of quality testing prior to its bottling and distribution (“14 steps quality process for purified water”). On top of all these procedures, the U.S Food and Drug Administration (FDA) also conducts its own routine testing and enforces government regulations of the production and distribution of bottled water. How is it possible then, for any contaminated bottled water to have found its way into the market for general consumption?

According to the NRDC, water sources in North America are already exposed to chemical and bioorganic pollutants on a regular basis due to toxic and industrial runoff (“Water”). Bottling companies in America attain their product from such sources, but they have no legal obligation to ensure that their product is completely clean and safe for consumption; they only need to meet the minimal standards laid down by the FDA, which “establishes allowable levels for contaminants in bottled water” (Posnick and Kim). These contaminants range from various forms of coliform bacteria — a common indicator of fecal contamination — to arsenic, nitrate, and other forms of chemical carcinogens (Olson), all of which can build up in the human body over time.

Moreover, the FDA only establishes and enforces regulations. It is up to individual bottling companies, which do not require any license or permit to market their products, to adhere to these rulings by whatever method they choose and submit water samples for independent testing only when asked to do so by the FDA (Posnick and Kim). Therefore, the bottled water industry is, for all intents and purposes, a self-policing one;  water quality monitoring policies are largely voluntary and internally regulated. This means that bottled water can be contaminated through accident or negligence, easily make its way into the market, and then cause a major illness outbreak before being discovered and recalled by local authorities, by which time it is far too late for the unfortunate consumers.

How then, should you approach bottled water? Ultimately, it would be alarmist and unreasonable to assume that all bottled water is unsafe for consumption. Most bottling companies do indeed practice scrupulous and ethical manufacturing, storage, and handling processes, and for the most part, bottled water is safe for consumption and an undeniably convenient way to quench your thirst. Nevertheless, there are many other issues with drinking bottled water, such as the waste and pollution generated in its production and packaging and the fact that in North America, bottled water is similar to tap water. So rather than buying a bottle of water on your way to work today, fill up a reusable water bottle from your tap instead.